Freedmen in a slave economy: Minas Gerais in 1831

Journal of Social History

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 933-962

  Klein, Herbert S ^a   Paiva, Clotilde Andrade ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039334465     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/29.4.933     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. See Herbert S. Klein, "The Colored Freedmen in Brazilian Slave Society," Journal of Social History III, no. 1 (Fall, 1969), and African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (New York, 1986), chap.10.
2. See Herbert S. Klein, "The Colored Freedmen in Brazilian Slave Society," Journal of Social History III, no. 1 (Fall, 1969), and African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (New York, 1986), chap.10.
3. See Manuel Moreno Fraginals, Herbert S. Klein and Stanley Engerman, "Nineteenth Century Cuban Slave Prices in Comparative Perspective," American Historical Review 88, no. 4 (Dec., 1983).
4. See e.g. Celia Maria Marinha Azevedo, Onda negra medo branco. O negro no imaginário das elites século xix (Rio de Janeiro, 1987); and Lilia Mortiz Schwarz, Retrato em branco e negro. Jornais, escravos e cidadãos em São Paulo no final do século XIX (São Paulo, 1987).
5. See e.g. Celia Maria Marinha Azevedo, Onda negra medo branco. O negro no imaginário das elites século xix (Rio de Janeiro, 1987); and Lilia Mortiz Schwarz, Retrato em branco e negro. Jornais, escravos e cidadãos em São Paulo no final do século XIX (São Paulo, 1987).
6. Minas Gerais in size and economic activity shares much in common with Virginia. Yet in this most liberal slave state the freedmen were totally marginalized figures, legally denied access to mobility and property. See Luther Porter Jackson, Free Negro Labor & Property Holding in Virginia, 1830-1860 (2nd.ed., New York, 1968).
7. There have been, of course, a number of studies on the free colored. But these have dealt with special aspects of their lives, have discussed very small and unrepresentative samples, or have included them in the larger context of an undifferentiated poor free population. The religious life of the urban free colored in the northeast has been studied by A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery & Freedom in Colonial Brazil (London, 1982); while the wealth of a sample of first-generation ex-slaves, also in an urban context, has been analyzed in Maria Inês Côrtes de Oliveira, O liberto: o seu mundo e os outros Salvador, 1790/1890 (São Paulo, 1988). The hardships suffered by both white and free colored poor under slavery have been treated in the classic studies of Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homes libres na ordem escravocrata (São Paulo, 1969) and Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados do Ouro. A pobreza mineira no século xviii (São Paulo, 1982) . An interesting comparative analysis of their treatment in the urban criminal system is found in Leila Mezan Algrant, O feitor ausente. Estudos sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1880-1822 (Petrópolis, 1988). But in general there is still no systematic study of their role in the economy and society either in the urban, or more importantly, in the rural areas where they were predominantly located.
8. There have been, of course, a number of studies on the free colored. But these have dealt with special aspects of their lives, have discussed very small and unrepresentative samples, or have included them in the larger context of an undifferentiated poor free population. The religious life of the urban free colored in the northeast has been studied by A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery & Freedom in Colonial Brazil (London, 1982); while the wealth of a sample of first-generation ex-slaves, also in an urban context, has been analyzed in Maria Inês Côrtes de Oliveira, O liberto: o seu mundo e os outros Salvador, 1790/1890 (São Paulo, 1988). The hardships suffered by both white and free colored poor under slavery have been treated in the classic studies of Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homes libres na ordem escravocrata (São Paulo, 1969) and Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados do Ouro. A pobreza mineira no século xviii (São Paulo, 1982) . An interesting comparative analysis of their treatment in the urban criminal system is found in Leila Mezan Algrant, O feitor ausente. Estudos sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1880-1822 (Petrópolis, 1988). But in general there is still no systematic study of their role in the economy and society either in the urban, or more importantly, in the rural areas where they were predominantly located.
9. There have been, of course, a number of studies on the free colored. But these have dealt with special aspects of their lives, have discussed very small and unrepresentative samples, or have included them in the larger context of an undifferentiated poor free population. The religious life of the urban free colored in the northeast has been studied by A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery & Freedom in Colonial Brazil (London, 1982); while the wealth of a sample of first-generation ex-slaves, also in an urban context, has been analyzed in Maria Inês Côrtes de Oliveira, O liberto: o seu mundo e os outros Salvador, 1790/1890 (São Paulo, 1988). The hardships suffered by both white and free colored poor under slavery have been treated in the classic studies of Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homes libres na ordem escravocrata (São Paulo, 1969) and Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados do Ouro. A pobreza mineira no século xviii (São Paulo, 1982) . An interesting comparative analysis of their treatment in the urban criminal system is found in Leila Mezan Algrant, O feitor ausente. Estudos sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1880-1822 (Petrópolis, 1988). But in general there is still no systematic study of their role in the economy and society either in the urban, or more importantly, in the rural areas where they were predominantly located.
10. There have been, of course, a number of studies on the free colored. But these have dealt with special aspects of their lives, have discussed very small and unrepresentative samples, or have included them in the larger context of an undifferentiated poor free population. The religious life of the urban free colored in the northeast has been studied by A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery & Freedom in Colonial Brazil (London, 1982); while the wealth of a sample of first-generation ex-slaves, also in an urban context, has been analyzed in Maria Inês Côrtes de Oliveira, O liberto: o seu mundo e os outros Salvador, 1790/1890 (São Paulo, 1988). The hardships suffered by both white and free colored poor under slavery have been treated in the classic studies of Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homes libres na ordem escravocrata (São Paulo, 1969) and Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados do Ouro. A pobreza mineira no século xviii (São Paulo, 1982) . An interesting comparative analysis of their treatment in the urban criminal system is found in Leila Mezan Algrant, O feitor ausente. Estudos sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1880-1822 (Petrópolis, 1988). But in general there is still no systematic study of their role in the economy and society either in the urban, or more importantly, in the rural areas where they were predominantly located.
11. There have been, of course, a number of studies on the free colored. But these have dealt with special aspects of their lives, have discussed very small and unrepresentative samples, or have included them in the larger context of an undifferentiated poor free population. The religious life of the urban free colored in the northeast has been studied by A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Black Man in Slavery & Freedom in Colonial Brazil (London, 1982); while the wealth of a sample of first-generation ex-slaves, also in an urban context, has been analyzed in Maria Inês Côrtes de Oliveira, O liberto: o seu mundo e os outros Salvador, 1790/1890 (São Paulo, 1988). The hardships suffered by both white and free colored poor under slavery have been treated in the classic studies of Maria Sylvia de Carvalho Franco, Homes libres na ordem escravocrata (São Paulo, 1969) and Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados do Ouro. A pobreza mineira no século xviii (São Paulo, 1982) . An interesting comparative analysis of their treatment in the urban criminal system is found in Leila Mezan Algrant, O feitor ausente. Estudos sobre a escravidão urbana no Rio de Janeiro - 1880-1822 (Petrópolis, 1988). But in general there is still no systematic study of their role in the economy and society either in the urban, or more importantly, in the rural areas where they were predominantly located.
12. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
13. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
14. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
15. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
16. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
17. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
18. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
19. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
20. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
21. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
22. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
23. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
24. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
25. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
26. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave
27. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
28. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
29. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
30. An overall view of the recent findings will be found in Stuart B. Schwartz, "Patterns of Slaveholding in the Americas: New Evidence from Brazil," American Historical Review 87, no.1 (Feb. 1982). Good summaries of the materials for Minas Gerais will be found in Clotilde Paiva and Herbert S. Klein, "Slave & Free in 19th century Minas Gerais: Campanha in 1831," Slavery & Abolition (London), 15, no.1 (April, 1994): 1-21; and for São Paulo in Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, "Slaves and Masters in early Nineteenth-Century Brazil: São Paulo," Journal of Interdisciplinary History XXI, no. 4 (Spring, 1991): 549-573. Among the detailed studies of Minas Gerais are those by Clotilde Andrade Paiva, "Minas Gerais no século xix: aspectos demográficos de alguns núcleos populacionais," in Iraci Nero da Costa, ed., Brasil: História Econômica e Demográfia (São Paulo, 1988) and "A natalidade de Minas Gerais no século xix: algumas hipóteses," Paper presented at the Conference on the Population History of Latin America (Ouro Preto, 2-6 July, 1989); Clotilde A. Paiva, et.al, "Estructura e dinámica da população de Minas Gerias no século xix," Unpublished CNPQ Research Report of 1990; Douglas Cole Libby and Márcia Grimaldi, "Equilíbrio e estabilidade: Economia e comportamento demográfíco num regime escravista, Minas Gerais no século xix," Anais: VI Encontre Nocionol de Estudos Populacionais (ABEP) (Olinda, 1988), III, 413-442; Clotilde Andrade Paiva and Douglas Cole Libby, "The Middle Path: Alternative Patterns of Slave Demographics in Nineteenth Century Minas Gerais," Paper presented at the World Demographic History Conference, Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1992. Older studies based on these unpublished manuscript censuses include among others, the works of Francisco Vidal Luna, Minas Gerais: Escravos e senhores (São Paulo, 1981; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.8); Francisco Vidal Luna and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas colonial: economia e sociedade (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Minas Gerais: Estruturas populacionais típicas (São Paulo, 1982); Iraci del Nero da Costa, Vila Rica: Populaçõo (1719-1826) (São Paulo, 1979; IPE/USP, "Ensaios econômicos", no.1); Donald Ramos, "City and Country: The Family in Minas Gerais, 1804-1838," Journal of Family History 3, no. 4 (Winter, 1978) and his earlier "Vila Rica: Profile of a Colonial Brazilian Urban Center," The Americos XXXV, no.4 (April, 1979). The São Paulo province "mappas" have been used in the following studies: Iraci del Nero da Costa and Horacio Gutierrez, Paraná: Mapas de habitantes, 1798-1830 (São Paulo, 1985); Horacio Gutierrez, "Demografia escrava numa economia não-exportadora: Paraná," Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 17, no. 2 (1987), and in his "Crioulos e Africanos no Paraná, 1798-1830," Revista Brasileira de História (São Paulo), 8, no. 16 (1988); in the work of José Flavio Motta, "A familía escrava e a penetração do café em Bananal (1801-1829)," Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais (São Paulo, ABEP) 5, no. 1 (1988): 71-101; and Armênio de Souza Rangel, "A economia do municipio de Taubaté: 1798 a 1835," Estudos Econômicos (Sa"o Paulo) 23, no. 1 (Janeiro/Abril 1993),149-179.
31. It should be stressed that Minas Gerais and São Paulo were slave systems (as defined by Finley and other scholars) because of the concentration of slaves in the most capitalist parts of the local economy. But slaves themselves were not the most numerous workers in these regions. In the United States South, slaveholders in the Southern states represented only 31% of the total free population in 1850. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860, 2 vols. (Washington, 1932), I:482.
32. On the roughly 5% of the free households which were colored in 1830, see Carter G. Woodson, Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830 (Washington, 1925); as well as his study Free Negro Owners of the Slaves in the United States in 1830 (New York, 1924). Gray estimates that in 1860 in the U. S. South, only 3% of the non-slave owning population was made up of free colored. Gray, Agriculture, I:481-482.
33. On the roughly 5% of the free households which were colored in 1830, see Carter G. Woodson, Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830 (Washington, 1925); as well as his study Free Negro Owners of the Slaves in the United States in 1830 (New York, 1924). Gray estimates that in 1860 in the U. S. South, only 3% of the non-slave owning population was made up of free colored. Gray, Agriculture, I:481-482.
34. On the roughly 5% of the free households which were colored in 1830, see Carter G. Woodson, Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830 (Washington, 1925); as well as his study Free Negro Owners of the Slaves in the United States in 1830 (New York, 1924). Gray estimates that in 1860 in the U. S. South, only 3% of the non-slave owning population was made up of free colored. Gray, Agriculture, I:481-482.
35. The few exceptions to this neglect are the works of Eni de Mesquita Samara, "O papel do agregado na região de Itu," Anais de Museu Paulista (1977): 13-121, and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Arraia-miuda: urn estudo sobre os não-proprietarios de escravos no Brasil (São Paulo, 1992) .
36. The few exceptions to this neglect are the works of Eni de Mesquita Samara, "O papel do agregado na região de Itu," Anais de Museu Paulista (1977): 13-121, and Iraci del Nero da Costa, Arraia-miuda: urn estudo sobre os não-proprietarios de escravos no Brasil (São Paulo, 1992) .
37. In the political geography of 19th-century Brazil a município was the equivalent of a North American county and defined both an urban district and its surrounding rural areas until the borders of the next município.
38. According to an 1836 tax list, Campanha had 93 engenhos (sugar mills) and Sabara some 157, thus accounting for 14% of the province's total. They were also listed with 472 and 275 country stores (vendas) respectively, which together accounted for 16% of the total in Minas Gerais. Clotilde A. Paiva and Marcelo M. Godoy, "Engenhos e casas de negócios na minas oitocentista," VI Seminário sobre a economia mineira (Belo Horizonte, 1992), 38, tabela 1.
39. Because of changing definition of districts, it is difficult to compare Campanha and Sabara across censuses. In 1821 these two municipios had a combined population of 104,000 persons and accounted for 20% of the provincial total (Raimundo José da Cunha Matos, Corografia histórica da província de Minas Gerias [1837] [2 vols.; Belo Horizonte, 1981], II: 45-50), while the census of 1835 showed the two zones with a total of 87,000 persons and just 12% of the total mineira population. In this latter census Campanha had almost 3,000 fewer persons than in 1831 and Sabara had some 15,000 more. Paiva and Godoy, "Engenhos e casa," loc.cit.
40. Because of changing definition of districts, it is difficult to compare Campanha and Sabara across censuses. In 1821 these two municipios had a combined population of 104,000 persons and accounted for 20% of the provincial total (Raimundo José da Cunha Matos, Corografia histórica da província de Minas Gerias [1837] [2 vols.; Belo Horizonte, 1981], II: 45-50), while the census of 1835 showed the two zones with a total of 87,000 persons and just 12% of the total mineira population. In this latter census Campanha had almost 3,000 fewer persons than in 1831 and Sabara had some 15,000 more. Paiva and Godoy, "Engenhos e casa," loc.cit.
41. Our definition of color used here differs somewhat from the traditional three color designations (pardo, preto and africano) used in the censuses of the period, in that we break down "preto" into two groupings: those born in Brazil, or preto crioulo, and those simply listed as only preto which we consider as African-born, along with those actually given the "africano" definition. We and other mineiro researchers (conversation with Douglas Libby, 17 December 1991), have consistently found that in the manuscript mappas of Minas in 1831 and 1832 the terms preto and africano were often used interchangeably. Where no African identity was given the term preto crioulo was used for distinguishing blacks who were native-born. It was quite typical to have a slave listed as preto whose name was José Minas or Antonio Angola. To further test the validity of our usage, we compared demographic structures of all four colored groups, and discovered that the sex ratios, the small number of children and the ratio of elderly and the age heaping between 10-14 and 30-34 found for Africans was quite similar to that for pretos, and both differed sharply from pretos crioulos and pardos.
42. Though the numbers are often insufficient to produce meaningful ratios, it would seem that Native-born blacks and Africans did differ more from the mulattoes than mulattoes differed from whites.
43. Thus taking just one possible index of children 0-9 to women 15-49 shows the following results: Non-slave Household Slave Households Whites Total Colored Whites Total Colored Sabara 830 970 1056 923 Campanha 1403 1126 1533 1004 Here, of course, the problem of defining the color of children and the lack of life tables for the various racial groups make it difficult to fully interpret these data. Thus, for example, while children of one white and one black or mulatto parent would be listed as mulatto and lost to the white group, so to would all children of Africans be listed as native-born blacks. For this reason we have decided to include all colored in one undifferentiated category (though of course the dominant racial group among free colored were the mulattoes). This would also mean that white parents are slightly underrepresented since some of their births will go to the free colored category. Also without knowing the life expectancy of white and free colored women it is difficult to fully interpret the meaning of the differences in the child/women ratios. The primary reason that ownership of slaves made little difference overall in rates of fertility has to do with the differing rates between whites and free colored. The free colored in non-slave-owning households had higher rates than those living in the slave-owning units. In turn, the opposite was the case for the whites, so that the two differences balanced each other out. But there is little question that there was a very sharp difference in total child/women ratios based on race.
44. In all the 19th-century "mapas" which have been examined, the occupation of slaves is not given. It has been assumed by almost all scholars working with these censuses that in the majority of the cases the slaves were employed in the same occupation as their masters, with the obvious exception of the liberal professions.
45. Jeremy Atack and Fred Bateman, To Their Own Soil. Agriculture in the Antebellum North (Ames, Iowa, 1987), 26. They estimate that of their almost 21,000-rural-household sample in the Middle West and Northeast, 44% were involved in non-farm activities.
46. Textiles were always the dominant activity among female headed-households in both communities, and among males in Sabara. In Campanha, however, male artisans were much more involved in non-textile activities, particularly woodworking, leather making and metals.
47. These generic titles of lavradores or agricultures give no indication of land ownership or socio-economic status, but most probably are related to agricultural production.
48. The GINI for Sabara of slaves held by masters and their relative shares of totals in each category was 0.599; and for Campanha 0.554.
49. In the actual distribution of owners by size of holding in slaves, the pardos in both communities did surprisingly well. In fact they did better in Campanha than in Sabara. In the former municipio some 3.3% of the pardo males held 21 or more slaves, as compared to 5.5% of the white male owners. In turn 79% of the pardo owners held fewer than 6 slaves, compared to 63% of the white owners. In contrast in Sabara, the relative ratios were 1.3% for the pardo males and 8% for the white males; while those holding fewer than 6 slaves were respectively 84% for the pardo males and 71% for the white male owners of slaves.
50. Only in terms of fertility (as measured in the child-women ratio) do we see a very interesting counter-result. For the free colored living in non-slave households, fertility was higher than among those living in slave-owning households. The cause for this difference is not immediately evident.