Constituting sexuality: The struggle for sexual orientation in the South African Bill of Rights

Journal of Law and Society

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 455-483

  Stychin, Carl F ^a  

^a KEELE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039333918     PISSN: 0263323X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1410476     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. S. 9 of ch. 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (the permanent Constitution) reads: (1) Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law. (2) Equality includes the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. To promote the achievement of equality, legislative and other measures designed to protect or advance persons, disadvantaged by unfair discrimination may be taken. (3) The state may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language, and birth. (4) No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of subsection (3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or prohibit unfair discrimination. (5) Discrimination on one or more grounds listed in subsection (3) is unfair unless it is established that the discrimination is fair.
2. S. 8 of ch. 3 of The Republic of South Africa Constitution Act 200 of 1994 (the Interim Constitution) reads: (1) Every person shall have the right to equality before the law and to equal protection of the law. (2) No person shall be unfairly discriminated against, directly or indirectly, and, without derogating from the generality of this provision, on one or more of the following grounds in particular: race, gender, sex, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture or language. (3) (a) This section shall not preclude measures designed to achieve the adequate protection and advancement of persons or groups or categories of persons disadvantaged by unfair discrimination, in order to enable their full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms. (b) Every person or community dispossessed of rights in land before the commencement of this Constitution under any law which would have been inconsistent with subsection (2) had that subsection been in operation at the time of the dispossession, shall be entitled to claim restitution of such rights subject to and in accordance with sections 121, 122, and 123. (4) Prima facie proof of discrimination on any of the grounds specified in subsection (2) shall be presumed to be sufficient proof of unfair discrimination as contemplated in that subsection, until the contrary is established.
3. See, for example, D. Herman, Rights of Passage: Struggles for Lesbian and Gay Legal Equality (1994); K. Crenshaw, 'Race, Reform and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Anti-Discrimination Law' (1988) 101 Harvard Law Rev. 1331.
4. See, for example, D. Herman, Rights of Passage: Struggles for Lesbian and Gay Legal Equality (1994); K. Crenshaw, 'Race, Reform and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Anti-Discrimination Law' (1988) 101 Harvard Law Rev. 1331.
5. J.C. Bakan and M. Smith, 'Rights, Nationalism and Social Movements in Canadian Constitutional Politics' (1995) 4 Social and Legal Studies 367.
6. id., p. 385.
7. See, for example, E.M. Schneider, 'The Dialectic of Rights and Politics: Perspectives from the Women's Movement' (1986) 61 New York University Law Rev. 589; J. Nedelsky and C. Scott, 'Constitutional Dialogue' in Social Justice and the Constitution: Perspectives on a Social Union for Canada, eds. J. Bakan and D. Schneiderman (1992) 59; D. Rayside, 'Gay Rights and Family Values: The Passage of Bill 7 in Ontario' (1988) 26 Studies in Political Economy 109.
8. See, for example, E.M. Schneider, 'The Dialectic of Rights and Politics: Perspectives from the Women's Movement' (1986) 61 New York University Law Rev. 589; J. Nedelsky and C. Scott, 'Constitutional Dialogue' in Social Justice and the Constitution: Perspectives on a Social Union for Canada, eds. J. Bakan and D. Schneiderman (1992) 59; D. Rayside, 'Gay Rights and Family Values: The Passage of Bill 7 in Ontario' (1988) 26 Studies in Political Economy 109.
9. See, for example, E.M. Schneider, 'The Dialectic of Rights and Politics: Perspectives from the Women's Movement' (1986) 61 New York University Law Rev. 589; J. Nedelsky and C. Scott, 'Constitutional Dialogue' in Social Justice and the Constitution: Perspectives on a Social Union for Canada, eds. J. Bakan and D. Schneiderman (1992) 59; D. Rayside, 'Gay Rights and Family Values: The Passage of Bill 7 in Ontario' (1988) 26 Studies in Political Economy 109.
10. For a brief review of this recent history, see L. Thompson, A History of South Africa (revised ed. 1995) 241-77.
11. See H. Corder, 'Towards a South African Constitution' (1994) 57 Modern Law Rev. 491, at 495.
12. See A.J. Norval, 'Decolonization, Demonization and Difference: The Difficult Constitution of a Nation' (1995) 21.3 Philosophy and Social Criticism 31. In 1988, the ANC published Constitutional Guidelines, which built upon the foundations of the Freedom Charter and included a proposed Bill of Rights; see Corder, id., p. 495.
13. See A.J. Norval, 'Decolonization, Demonization and Difference: The Difficult Constitution of a Nation' (1995) 21.3 Philosophy and Social Criticism 31. In 1988, the ANC published Constitutional Guidelines, which built upon the foundations of the Freedom Charter and included a proposed Bill of Rights; see Corder, id., p. 495.
14. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
15. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
16. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
17. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
18. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
19. H. Corder et al., A Charter for Social Justice (1992); S.A. Law Commission, Project 58: Group and Human Rights, Working Paper 25 (1989); S.A. Law Commission, Interim Report on Group and Human Rights (1991); African National Congress, A Bill of Rights for a New South Africa - A Working Document by the ANC Constitutional Committee (1990); S.A. Government, Proposals on a Charter of Fundamental Rights (1993); Democratic Party, Draft Bill of Rights (1993).
20. On the constitutional negotiation process, see generally Corder, op. cit., n. 8.
21. See id.; C. Albertyn, 'Women and the Transition to Democracy in South Africa' [1994] Acta Juridica 39.
22. See id.; C. Albertyn, 'Women and the Transition to Democracy in South Africa' [1994] Acta Juridica 39.
23. Corder, id.
24. id., p. 513.
25. See Corder, op. cit., n. 10, p. 30.
26. Personal interview by author with Professor Hugh Corder, 17 August 1995. I have made a similar argument focusing upon the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms; see C.F. Stychin, 'Essential Rights and Contested Identities: Sexual Orientation and Equality Rights Jurisprudence in Canada' (1995) 8.1 Cdn. J. of Law and Jurisprudence 49.
27. Corder, id. On the struggle to include issues of gender on the constitutional agenda, see Albertyn, op. cit., n. 12.
28. Corder, id. On the struggle to include issues of gender on the constitutional agenda, see Albertyn, op. cit., n. 12.
29. Kevan Botha of the Equality Foundation and (then) Professor Edwin Cameron of the University of the Witwatersrand Centre for Applied Legal Studies were particularly instrumental in this regard: Corder, id.
30. Personal interview by author with Mr. Justice Edwin Cameron, Supreme Court of South Africa, 31 July 1995.
31. Corder, op. cit., n. 16.
32. See, generally, M. Gevisser, 'A Different Fight for Freedom: A History of South African Lesbian and Gay Organisation from the 1950s to the 1990s' in Defiant Desire: Gay and Lesbian Lives in South Africa, eds. M. Gevisser and E. Cameron (1995) 14.
33. See G. Retief, 'Keeping Sodom out of the Laager: State Repression of Homosexuality in Apartheid South Africa' in Gevisser and Cameron, id., p. 99.
34. Gevisser, op. cit., n. 21.
35. See E. Cameron, '"Unapprehended Felons": Gays and Lesbians and the Law in South Africa' in Gevisser and Cameron, op. cit., n. 21, p. 89, at 96.
36. S.A. Constitutional Assembly, Annual Report (1995).
37. Personal interview by author with Zackie Achmat and Phumzile Mtetwa, Interim Executive Committee members, National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality, 7 August 1995.
38. Held on 3 December 1994 at the Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the Witwatersrand.
39. P. Mtetwa, 'Defend the Equality Clause' (1995) 1 Equality: News and Views of the National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality 1.
40. See letter by Rev. D.M. Tutu to Theme Committee Four, Constitutional Assembly, 2 June 1995; published in (1995) 71 Exit 7.
41. See, generally, Gevisser, op. cit., n. 21.
42. id.
43. K. Botha, 'It's time for you to act' (1995) 2.9 Outright 28.
44. Personal interview by author with Kevan Botha, Parliamentary Lobbyist for the National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality, 28 July 1995.
45. For an example of an alternative strategy, in which letter-writing and other forms of grassroots input were deployed by gay rights lobbyists, see Rayside, op. cit., n. 6, p. 118.
46. See, for example, Schneider, op. cit., n. 6; Herman, op. cit., n. 3; P.M. Cicchino, et al., 'Sex, Lies, and Civil Rights: A Critical History of the Massachusetts Gay Civil Rights Bill' in Legal Inversions: Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Politics of Law, eds. D. Herman and C. Stychin (1995) 141.
47. See, for example, Schneider, op. cit., n. 6; Herman, op. cit., n. 3; P.M. Cicchino, et al., 'Sex, Lies, and Civil Rights: A Critical History of the Massachusetts Gay Civil Rights Bill' in Legal Inversions: Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Politics of Law, eds. D. Herman and C. Stychin (1995) 141.
48. See, for example, Schneider, op. cit., n. 6; Herman, op. cit., n. 3; P.M. Cicchino, et al., 'Sex, Lies, and Civil Rights: A Critical History of the Massachusetts Gay Civil Rights Bill' in Legal Inversions: Lesbians, Gay Men, and the Politics of Law, eds. D. Herman and C. Stychin (1995) 141.
49. See, generally, R.L. Abel, Politics By Other Means (1995), on the multitude of ways in which law served as a means by which the apartheid system was both entrenched and resisted.
50. On the relationship between public interest lawyers and social movements, see J.F. Handler, Social Movements and the Legal System (1978) 25-34. Handler's conclusion that lawyers 'often assume a dominant position with regard to tactics and strategy once the group goes the legal route' (id., p. 33) is particularly apparent in the South African context.
51. Personal interview by author with Andrew Murphy, Lawyers for Gay and Lesbian Equality, 2 August 1995.
52. Cicchino, op. cit., n. 36, p. 156.
53. Murphy, op. cit., n. 39.
54. id.
55. That strategy is outlined in Cameron, op. cit., n. 24, p. 97.
56. An interesting analogy can be drawn here to the ways in which a 'radical' lesbian feminist agenda was left little discursive space within lesbian and gay (liberal) local government political organizing in 1980s Britain. See, generally, D. Cooper, 'A Retreat from Feminism? British, Municipal Lesbian Politics and Cross-Gender Initiatives' (1994) 7 Cdn. J. of Women and the Law 431.
57. See Gevisser, op. cit., n. 21, p. 83: 'At this putative moment of concern for the rights of all South Africans, any call for gay rights sounds shrill, self-interested and with the potential to detract from the larger struggle for democracy.'
58. For a 'classic' examination of the dominance of rights strategies, litigation, and lawyers in agendas for social change in the United States of America, see S. Scheingold, The Politics of Rights (1974).
59. See Cameron, op. cit., n. 24.
60. Botha, op. cit., n. 34.
61. Achmat and Mtetwa, op. cit., n. 27. A similar argument has been made in the context of American sodomy laws; see, generally, K. Thomas, 'Beyond the Privacy Principle' (1992) 92 Columbia Law Rev. 1436.
62. Achmat and Mtetwa, op. cit., n. 27. A similar argument has been made in the context of American sodomy laws; see, generally, K. Thomas, 'Beyond the Privacy Principle' (1992) 92 Columbia Law Rev. 1436.
63. Murphy, op. cit., n. 39.
64. See, generally, Albertyn, op. cit., n. 12.
65. id., p. 52. For a consideration of the role of rights in fostering broadly based political action in the American legal context, see N. Milner, 'The Dilemmas of Legal Mobilization: Ideologies and Strategies of Mental Patient Liberation Groups' (1986) 8 Law and Politics 105.
66. id., p. 52. For a consideration of the role of rights in fostering broadly based political action in the American legal context, see N. Milner, 'The Dilemmas of Legal Mobilization: Ideologies and Strategies of Mental Patient Liberation Groups' (1986) 8 Law and Politics 105.
67. K. Botha, 'Think Strategically' (1995) 1 Equality: News and Views of the National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality 4.
68. For a critique of the focus on unity, see B. Ditsie, 'What Unity?' (1995) 2.8 Outright 14, in which the author calls for separate space for black lesbian and gay organizations.
69. For a very similar argument in a North American context, see Rayside, op. cit., n. 6, p. 141.
70. See, generally, N. Milner, 'The Denigration of Rights and the Persistence of Rights Talk: A Cultural Portrait' (1989) 14 Law and Social Inquiry 631.
71. Ironically, the theme of the Book Fair that year was 'Human Rights' and GALZ was excluded from participating because of Mugabe's opposition. See 'Mugabe cracks down on gay rights' Mail and Guardian, 4-10 August 1995; C. Dunton and M. Palmberg, Human Rights and Homosexuality in Southern Africa (1996) 8-17.
72. Ironically, the theme of the Book Fair that year was 'Human Rights' and GALZ was excluded from participating because of Mugabe's opposition. See 'Mugabe cracks down on gay rights' Mail and Guardian, 4-10 August 1995; C. Dunton and M. Palmberg, Human Rights and Homosexuality in Southern Africa (1996) 8-17.
73. Achmat and Mtetwa, op. cit., n. 27.
74. See, for example, Cicchino, op. cit., n. 36; Rayside, op. cit., n. 6.
75. See, for example, Cicchino, op. cit., n. 36; Rayside, op. cit., n. 6.
76. See, generally, D. Cooper and D. Herman, '"Getting the Family Right": Legislating Heterosexuality in Britain, 1986-91' in Herman and Stychin, op. cit., n. 36, p. 162.
77. id., p. 171.
78. For an elaboration of this argument, see Stychin, op. cit., n. 16.
79. See, for example, Cooper and Herman, op. cit., n. 60; J.E. Halley, 'The Construction of Heterosexuality' in Fear of a Queer Planet, ed. M. Warner (1993) 82.
80. See, for example, Cooper and Herman, op. cit., n. 60; J.E. Halley, 'The Construction of Heterosexuality' in Fear of a Queer Planet, ed. M. Warner (1993) 82.
81. Cooper and Herman, op. cit., n. 60, p. 171.
82. I have considered the relevance of queer theory to legal discourse elsewhere; see C.F. Stychin, Law's Desire: Sexuality and the Limits of Justice (1995) ch. 8.
83. See, generally, M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume One: An Introduction, trans. R. Hurley (1990). On social construction theory and sexuality, see Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy, ed. E. Stein (1992); and, for the implications for legal discourse, see J.E. Halley, 'Sexual Orientation and the Politics of Biology: A Critique of the Argument from Immutability' (1994) 46 Stanford Law Rev. 503.
84. See, generally, M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume One: An Introduction, trans. R. Hurley (1990). On social construction theory and sexuality, see Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy, ed. E. Stein (1992); and, for the implications for legal discourse, see J.E. Halley, 'Sexual Orientation and the Politics of Biology: A Critique of the Argument from Immutability' (1994) 46 Stanford Law Rev. 503.
85. See, generally, M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality Volume One: An Introduction, trans. R. Hurley (1990). On social construction theory and sexuality, see Forms of Desire: Sexual Orientation and the Social Constructionist Controversy, ed. E. Stein (1992); and, for the implications for legal discourse, see J.E. Halley, 'Sexual Orientation and the Politics of Biology: A Critique of the Argument from Immutability' (1994) 46 Stanford Law Rev. 503.
86. See, generally, D. Herman, The Anti-Gay Agenda: Orthodox Vision and the Christian Right (forthcoming, 1997).
87. M. Gevisser and E. Cameron, 'Defiant Desires: An Introduction' in Gevisser and Cameron, op. cit., n. 21, p. 3 at 5.
88. J. Weeks, Invented Moralities: Sexual Values in an Age of Uncertainty (1995) 119. But see, also, Rayside, op. cit., n. 6, p. 140, arguing that rights struggles 'can be important in themselves, and useful building blocks in a longer-term strategy to change deeply embedded relations of domination.'
89. J. Weeks, Invented Moralities: Sexual Values in an Age of Uncertainty (1995) 119. But see, also, Rayside, op. cit., n. 6, p. 140, arguing that rights struggles 'can be important in themselves, and useful building blocks in a longer-term strategy to change deeply embedded relations of domination.'
90. On the history of virulent state homophobia in South Africa, see, generally, Retief, op. cit., no. 22.
91. E. Cameron, 'Sexual Orientation and the Constitution: A Test Case for Human Rights' (1993) 110 South African Law J. 450, at 461-2.
92. National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality, Submission to Constitutional Assembly Theme Committee Four on Fundamental Rights, 20 February 1995, unpublished, at p. 6.
93. id., p. 12.
94. See S. Dubow, 'Afrikaner Nationalism, Apartheid and the Conceptualization of Race' (1992) 33 J. of African History 209.
95. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 12.
96. id., p. 11.
97. National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality, Submission to Constitutional Assembly Theme Committee Four on Fundamental Rights, 8 June 1995, unpublished, at pp. 5-7.
98. 478 U.S. 186 (1986) (upholding the legality of sodomy laws as they apply to 'homosexual' sodomy).
99. See, generally, J.E. Halley, 'The Politics of the Closet: Towards Equal Protection for Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Identity' (1989) 10 University of California at Los Angeles Law Rev. 915.
100. Botha, op. cit., n. 34.
101. Cameron, op. cit., n. 19.
102. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 5.
103. id., p. 10.
104. The identity argument also does nothing to problematize the construction of heterosexuality, which remains the dominant background norm; see, generally, Halley, op. cit., n. 63.
105. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 8.
106. For an excellent analysis of how racial 'difference' is itself an effect of interpretation and construction, see K. Thomas, 'The Eclipse of Reason: A Rhetorical Reading of Bowers v. Hardwick' (1993) 79 Virginia Law Rev. 1805, at 1806-7.
107. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 7, citing J.M. Bailey and R.C. Pillard, 'A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation' (1991) 48 Archives of General Psychiatry 1089; D.H. Hamer et al., 'A Linkage Between DNA Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation' (1993) 261 Science 321; S. le Vay, 'A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men' (1991) 253 Science 1034.
108. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 7, citing J.M. Bailey and R.C. Pillard, 'A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation' (1991) 48 Archives of General Psychiatry 1089; D.H. Hamer et al., 'A Linkage Between DNA Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation' (1993) 261 Science 321; S. le Vay, 'A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men' (1991) 253 Science 1034.
109. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 7, citing J.M. Bailey and R.C. Pillard, 'A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation' (1991) 48 Archives of General Psychiatry 1089; D.H. Hamer et al., 'A Linkage Between DNA Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation' (1993) 261 Science 321; S. le Vay, 'A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men' (1991) 253 Science 1034.
110. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 7, citing J.M. Bailey and R.C. Pillard, 'A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation' (1991) 48 Archives of General Psychiatry 1089; D.H. Hamer et al., 'A Linkage Between DNA Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation' (1993) 261 Science 321; S. le Vay, 'A Difference in Hypothalamic Structure Between Heterosexual and Homosexual Men' (1991) 253 Science 1034.
111. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, pp. 16-18.
112. id., p. 17.
113. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 79, p. 11.
114. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 15.
115. By contrast, the impact of the judicial 'reading in' of sexual orientation in the equality guarantees of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms on discrimination by private actors is a contentious issue which has yet to be definitively resolved by the Courts. For opposing views, see Haig v. Canada (1992) 94 D.L.R. (4th) 1 (Ontario C.A.); Vriend v. Alberta (1996) 132 D.L.R. (4th) 595 (Alberta C.A.).
116. By contrast, the impact of the judicial 'reading in' of sexual orientation in the equality guarantees of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms on discrimination by private actors is a contentious issue which has yet to be definitively resolved by the Courts. For opposing views, see Haig v. Canada (1992) 94 D.L.R. (4th) 1 (Ontario C.A.); Vriend v. Alberta (1996) 132 D.L.R. (4th) 595 (Alberta C.A.).
117. The guarantee of religious freedom is found in s. 15 of ch. 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996: (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion. (2) Religious observances may be conducted at state or state-aided institutions provided that-(a) those observances follow rules made by the appropriate public authorities; (b) they are conducted on an equitable basis; and (c) attendance at them is free and voluntary. (3) (a) This section does not prevent legislation recognising -(i) marriages concluded under any tradition or a system of religious, personal or family law; or (ii) systems of personal and family law under any tradition or adhered to by persons professing a particular religion. (b) Recognition in terms of paragraph (a) must be consistent with this section and the other provisions of the Constitution.
118. The Commission held, '[i]n the light of our new [Interim] Bill of Rights, it is important that all segments of our population should be portrayed in a sympathetic and compassionate light, so that the citizens of this country can be educated out of prejudiced and intolerant views' Witness Reporter, 22 November 1994.
119. See, generally, R. Holmes, '"White Rapists Made Coloureds (And Homosexuals)": The Winnie Mandela Trial and the Politics of Race and Sexuality' in Gevisser and Cameron, op. cit., n. 21, p. 284.
120. I develop this point in greater detail in C.F. Stychin, A Nation By Rights: National Cultures, Identity Politics and the Discourse of Rights (forthcoming,1998).
121. National Coalition, op. cit., n. 72, p. 16.
122. See, generally, Foucault, op. cit., n. 66.
123. See, generally, R. Bleys, The Geography of Perversion (1996).
124. See D. Fuss, Identification Papers (1995) 159.
125. Personal interview by author with Louis Green, MP (ACDP), 16 August 1995.
126. id.
127. Rev. K.R. Meshoe MP, S.A. Parl. Debs., p. 32 (24 January 1995).
128. Green, op. cit., n. 104.
129. Given the cultural isolation of South Africa in recent history, this accusation seems unsustainable, and is denied by activists.
130. See, for example, J. Butler, Gender Trouble (1990).
131. Green, op. cit., n. 104.
132. Interestingly, by the end of the process, the number of submissions favouring the inclusion of 'sexual orientation' in the Constitution far outnumbered those against; see Dunton and Palmberg, op. cit., n. 57, p. 29.
133. Botha, op. cit., n. 34.
134. 'Former MI Man Behind New Party' Mail and Guardian, 14 January 1994.
135. Meshoe, op. cit., n. 106.
136. In adopting this strategy, the ACDP left themselves open to charges of extremism. This image was exacerbated by the contrast to the moderate, 'professional' image cultivated by the Coalition. Image may well have been an important factor in this contest, and it has been commented upon in other gay rights struggles; see, for example, Rayside, op. cit., n. 6, pp. 127-8.
137. Cicchino, op. cit., n. 36, p. 156.
138. A. Sachs, 'The Last Word - Freedom' in his Protecting Human Rights in a New South Africa (1990) 184, at 189.
139. Cicchino, op. cit., n. 36, p. 158.
140. See, generally, Cooper and Herman, op. cit., n. 60.