Myth in the desert, or not the Great Arab Revolt

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 267-312

  Karsh, Efraim ^a   Karsh, Inari ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039279327     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209708701154     Document Type: Article

References (220)

1. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
2. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
3. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
4. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
5. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
6. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
7. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
8. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
9. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
10. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
11. For the classic exposition of this view see George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (London, 1938); Amin Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [The Great Arab Revolt] (Cairo, 1934); Suleiman Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya [The Arab Movement] (Beirut, 1970); Abu Khaldun Sati al-Husri, Yawm Maisalun: Safha min Tarikh al-Arab al-Hadith [The Day of Maisalun: a Page from the Modern History of the Arabs] (revised edition, Beirut, 1964). See also Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Mudhakkirati [Memoirs] (Jerusalem, 1945) (and the abridged English version Memoirs of King Abdullah, Jerusalem, 1945); Zaki Hazem Nuseibeh, The Ideas of Arab Nationalism (Ithaca, 1956); Zeine N. Zeine, The Emergence of Arab Nationalism with a Background Study of Arab-Turkish Relations in the Near East (2nd. rev. ed., Beirut, 1966). For Western subscription to this standard misconception see, for example, Mrs. Steuart [Beatrice Caroline] Erskine, King Faisal of Iraq: an Authorised and Authentic Study (London, 1933); Mary C. Wilson, 'The Hashemites, the Arab Revolt, and Arab Nationalism', in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslin and Reeva Simon (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York, 1991), pp.204-21 (see also articles by Khalidi and Ochsenwald in the same volume); George Lenczowski, The Middle East in World Affairs (Ithaca, 1980, 4th edition), pp.58-59, 79-87; George Kirk, A Short History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to Modern Times (New York, 1963), Chapter 5.
12. The foremost exponent of this view is Ernest Dawn: From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, 1973); and his 'The Origins of Arab Nationalism', in R. Khalidi et al. (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism, pp.3-31. For an uncritical acceptance of this position see, for example, Philip Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: the Politics of Damascus 1806-1920 (Cambridge, 1983), pp.76-8.
13. The foremost exponent of this view is Ernest Dawn: From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, 1973); and his 'The Origins of Arab Nationalism', in R. Khalidi et al. (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism, pp.3-31. For an uncritical acceptance of this position see, for example, Philip Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: the Politics of Damascus 1806-1920 (Cambridge, 1983), pp.76-8.
14. The foremost exponent of this view is Ernest Dawn: From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism (Urbana, 1973); and his 'The Origins of Arab Nationalism', in R. Khalidi et al. (eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism, pp.3-31. For an uncritical acceptance of this position see, for example, Philip Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: the Politics of Damascus 1806-1920 (Cambridge, 1983), pp.76-8.
15. The most formidable critic of this mythologized historiography has been Elie Kedourie. See, for example, his: England and the Middle East. The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire 1914-1921 (London, 1956);
16. The Chatham House Version and Other Middle Eastern Studies, (London, 1970);
17. and, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and Its Interpretations 1914-1939 (Cambridge, 1976).
18. Correspondence between Sir Henry McMahon, His Majesty's High Commissioner at Cairo, and the Sherif of Mecca July 1915-March 1916, Presented by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, Cmd. 5957, London, 1939, p.3 (hereafter Correspondence).
19. Lowther to Foreign Office, 24 Nov. 1908 FO 371/561.
20. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.18-20; Musbah Haidar, Arabesque (London, 1945), pp.59, 80; George Stitt, A Prince of Arabia (London, 1948), pp.115-16, 137.
21. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.18-20; Musbah Haidar, Arabesque (London, 1945), pp.59, 80; George Stitt, A Prince of Arabia (London, 1948), pp.115-16, 137.
22. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.18-20; Musbah Haidar, Arabesque (London, 1945), pp.59, 80; George Stitt, A Prince of Arabia (London, 1948), pp.115-16, 137.
23. 'Emir Abdullah's account of his conversations with Lord Kitchener, transmitted with notes by Mr. George Antonius', in G.P. Gooch and H. Temperley (eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War 1898-1914 (London, 1936), Vol.X, Part 2, pp.831-32;
24. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-72;
25. Amin Said, Asrar al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-kubra wa Mas' at al-Sharif Hussein [Secrets of the Great Arab Revolt and Sharif Hussein's Tragedy] (Beirut, n.d.), p.35;
26. and his, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.125.
27. Kitchener to Grey, 6 Feb. 1914, in Gooch and Temperley (eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, p.827; Ronald Storrs, Orientations (London, 1939), pp.129-30. For Abdullah's version see: Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya, pp.66-72; and his edited volume, al-Murasalat al-Tarikhiyya 1914-1918 [Historical Correspondence 1914-1918] (Beirut 1970), Vol.I, pp.21-22.
28. Kitchener to Grey, 6 Feb. 1914, in Gooch and Temperley (eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, p.827; Ronald Storrs, Orientations (London, 1939), pp.129-30. For Abdullah's version see: Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya, pp.66-72; and his edited volume, al-Murasalat al-Tarikhiyya 1914-1918 [Historical Correspondence 1914-1918] (Beirut 1970), Vol.I, pp.21-22.
29. Kitchener to Grey, 6 Feb. 1914, in Gooch and Temperley (eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, p.827; Ronald Storrs, Orientations (London, 1939), pp.129-30. For Abdullah's version see: Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya, pp.66-72; and his edited volume, al-Murasalat al-Tarikhiyya 1914-1918 [Historical Correspondence 1914-1918] (Beirut 1970), Vol.I, pp.21-22.
30. Kitchener to Grey, 6 Feb. 1914, in Gooch and Temperley (eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, p.827; Ronald Storrs, Orientations (London, 1939), pp.129-30. For Abdullah's version see: Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya, pp.66-72; and his edited volume, al-Murasalat al-Tarikhiyya 1914-1918 [Historical Correspondence 1914-1918] (Beirut 1970), Vol.I, pp.21-22.
31. Ronald Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, in Chetham's desptach on 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396; Storrs, Orientations, pp.129-30; Kitchener to Grey, 4 April 1914, and Kitchner to Tyrrell, 26 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, pp.830-31. See also: Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.125-7.
32. Ronald Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, in Chetham's desptach on 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396; Storrs, Orientations, pp.129-30; Kitchener to Grey, 4 April 1914, and Kitchner to Tyrrell, 26 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, pp.830-31. See also: Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.125-7.
33. Ronald Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, in Chetham's desptach on 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396; Storrs, Orientations, pp.129-30; Kitchener to Grey, 4 April 1914, and Kitchner to Tyrrell, 26 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, pp.830-31. See also: Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.125-7.
34. Ronald Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, in Chetham's desptach on 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396; Storrs, Orientations, pp.129-30; Kitchener to Grey, 4 April 1914, and Kitchner to Tyrrell, 26 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, pp.830-31. See also: Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.125-7.
35. Ronald Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, in Chetham's desptach on 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396; Storrs, Orientations, pp.129-30; Kitchener to Grey, 4 April 1914, and Kitchner to Tyrrell, 26 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol.X, Part 2, pp.830-31. See also: Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.71-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.125-7.
36. Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p.5.
37. Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism, p.51.
38. FO 371/2139/52598, 24 Sept. 1914.
39. Cheetham to Foreign Office, 13 Dec. 1914, FO 371/1973/87396. For slightly different versions of the message see: Secretary of State to Viceroy, Foreign Department, 14 Dec. 1914, FO 371/2139/83620; Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents from the Outbreak of the War between Great Britain and Turkey 1914 to the Outbreak of the Revolt of the Sharif of Mecca in June 1916', Cairo, 26 Nov. 1916, WO 58/624, p.24.
40. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', p.25; Storrs, Orientations, p.159.
41. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', p.25; Storrs, Orientations, p.159.
42. See, for example, report by Reginald Wingate to Foreign Office, 14 Aug. 1914, FO 371/2486/112369; T.E. Lawrence's Diary, Yanbo, 2-5 Dec. 1916, FO 882/12, Arab Bureau Papers, p.15.
43. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
44. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
45. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
46. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
47. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
48. For various accounts of the contacts between Hussein and the two secret societies, see: Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapter 8; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.107-10; Ahmad Izzat al-Azami, al-Qadiyya al-Arabiyya: Asbabuha, Muqaddimatuha, Tatawuratuha wa-Nataijuha [The Arab Question: Its Causes, Advent, Development and Results] (Baghdad 1931-34), Vol.IV, pp.100-1; Ahmad Qadri, Mudhakkirati an al-Thwara al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [My Memoirs of the Great Arab Revolt] (Damascus, 1956), pp.46; Suleiman Musa, al-Hussein Ibn Ali wa-l-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra [Hussein Ibn Ali and the Great Arab Revolt] (Amman, 1957), pp.76-7; Erskine, King Faisal, pp.42-4.
49. Wingate to Clayton, 12 July 1915, FO 882/12, p.106; Intelligence Office, War Office, Cairo, 'Statement of Mulasim Awal (Lieutenant) Mohammed Sherif El Farugi', FO 371/2486/157740, 25 Oct. 1915, p.4.
50. For conflicting interpretations of the correspondence see, for example, Report of a Committee set up to consider Certain Correspondence Between Sir Henry McMahon and The Sharif of Mecca in 1915 and 1916, Cmd 5974, London, 1939; Statements made on behalf of His Majesty's Government during the year 1918 in regard to the Future Status of certain parts of the Ottoman Empire, Presented by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, Cmd. 5964, London, 1939; Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth; A.L. Tibawi, A Modern History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine (London, 1969); and his Anglo-Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine, 1914-1921 (London, 1977); Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapters IX-X; Isaiah Friedman, 'The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence and the Question of Palestine', with comments by Arnold Toynbee and a response by the author, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.V, No.2 (1970), pp.83-122, and Vol.V, No.4 (1970), pp.185-201; Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism, Chapter IV.
51. For conflicting interpretations of the correspondence see, for example, Report of a Committee set up to consider Certain Correspondence Between Sir Henry McMahon and The Sharif of Mecca in 1915 and 1916, Cmd 5974, London, 1939; Statements made on behalf of His Majesty's Government during the year 1918 in regard to the Future Status of certain parts of the Ottoman Empire, Presented by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, Cmd. 5964, London, 1939; Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth; A.L. Tibawi, A Modern History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine (London, 1969); and his Anglo-Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine, 1914-1921 (London, 1977); Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapters IX-X; Isaiah Friedman, 'The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence and the Question of Palestine', with comments by Arnold Toynbee and a response by the author, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.V, No.2 (1970), pp.83-122, and Vol.V, No.4 (1970), pp.185-201; Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism, Chapter IV.
52. For conflicting interpretations of the correspondence see, for example, Report of a Committee set up to consider Certain Correspondence Between Sir Henry McMahon and The Sharif of Mecca in 1915 and 1916, Cmd 5974, London, 1939; Statements made on behalf of His Majesty's Government during the year 1918 in regard to the Future Status of certain parts of the Ottoman Empire, Presented by the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, Cmd. 5964, London, 1939; Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth; A.L. Tibawi, A Modern History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine (London, 1969); and his Anglo-Arab Relations and the Question of Palestine, 1914-1921 (London, 1977); Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Chapters IX-X; Isaiah Friedman, 'The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence and the Question of Palestine', with comments by Arnold Toynbee and a response by the author, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.V, No.2 (1970), pp.83-122, and Vol.V, No.4 (1970), pp.185-201; Dawn, From Ottomanism to Arabism, Chapter IV.
53. Thus a translation from the unofficial Arabic text in Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.131. The official British text, as well as Antonius' translation (p.414), refer to 'the Arab countries'. Yet the nature of Hussein's ambitions, as expressed both in his correspondence with McMahon and in his activities throughout the war and in its aftermath, leave little doubt that what he had in mind was a unified 'Arab state', or more precisely, empire, under his sole rule, rather than a confederation of Arab states, let alone a string of independent Arab states.
54. Thus a translation from the unofficial Arabic text in Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.131. The official British text, as well as Antonius' translation (p.414), refer to 'the Arab countries'. Yet the nature of Hussein's ambitions, as expressed both in his correspondence with McMahon and in his activities throughout the war and in its aftermath, leave little doubt that what he had in mind was a unified 'Arab state', or more precisely, empire, under his sole rule, rather than a confederation of Arab states, let alone a string of independent Arab states.
55. Correspondence, p.3.
56. Lawrence to Liddell Hart, as cited in T.E. Lawrence to his Biographer Liddell Hart (London, 1938), p.59.
57. For the recommendations of the de Bunsen committee see: 'Report of the Committee on Asiatic Turkey', 13 June 1915, CAB 27/1.
58. See, for example, Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Twenty-Five Years (New York, 1925), Vol.II, p.188; Raymond Poincaré, Au Service de la France (Paris, 1926-33), Vol.VI, p.94.
59. See, for example, Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Twenty-Five Years (New York, 1925), Vol.II, p.188; Raymond Poincaré, Au Service de la France (Paris, 1926-33), Vol.VI, p.94.
60. Communication by W. Aubry Herbert, MP, to Lord Kitchener, 30 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/164659.
61. T.E. Lawrence, 'Syria: the Raw Material' (written early in 1915 but not circulated), Arab Bulletin, No.44, 12 March 1917, FO/882/26.
62. T.E. Lawrence to his Biographers Robert Graves and Liddell Hart (London, 1963), p.101.
63. McMahon to Grey, 14 May 1915, FO 371/2486/60357.
64. D.G. Hogarth, 'Arabs and Turks', The Arab Bulletin, No.48, 21 April 1917, FO 882/26.
65. Note by Reginald Wingate, 25 Aug. 1915, FO 371/2486/138500.
66. Kedourie, England and the Middle East, p.53.
67. Grey to McMahon, 12 Jan. 1915, 371/2154/1286; British Minister in Sofia to Director of Military Operations, 1 July 1915, FO 371/2486/87220; Letter from Sir Mark Sykes on a meeting with Prince Sabah ed-din, 13 July 1915, FO 371/2486/93937.
68. Memorandum by Sir Thomas Holderness, 5 Jan. 1915, India Office Records, L/P & S/10/523 p.53/15.
69. Storrs to Fitzgerald, 6 Sept. 1915, PRO 30/57/47, QQ38 (Kithener Papers). See also: Grey to Bertie, 23 March 1915, FO 371/2486/34982; Grey to McMahon, 14 April 1915, FO 371/2486/44598; McMahon to Grey, 14 May 1915, FO 371/2486/60357; India Office to Foreign Office, 24 June 1915, FO 371/2486/83311.
70. Storrs' commentary on Hussein's first letter, 19 Aug. 1914, FO 371/2486/125293.
71. Storrs, Orientations, pp.160-1.
72. Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, pp.34-8.
73. McMahon to Grey, 23 Aug. 1915, FO 371/2486/117236.
74. India Office to Foreign Office, 25 Aug. 1915, FO 371/2486/118580.
75. McMahon to Grey, 26 Aug. 1915, FO 371/2486/125293.
76. Correspondence, pp.2-3; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Appendix A, No.2, pp.415-16.
77. Correspondence, pp.2-3; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, Appendix A, No.2, pp.415-16.
78. Correspondence, pp.5-7.
79. Ibid., pp.8-9.
80. Grey to McMahon, 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/155203.
81. Correspondence, pp.9-11.
82. Ibid., pp.11-12.
83. Ibid., p.13.
84. Ibid., p.14.
85. McMahon to Grey, 26 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/163832.
86. Storrs, Orientations, p.160.
87. Gilbert Clayton, 'Memorandum regarding various conversations held with a certain Mulasim Awal (Lieutenant) Mohammed Sherif El Farugi', 11 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/157740, and 'Statement of Mulasim Awal (Lieutenant) Mohammed Sherif El Farugi', ibid.
88. See, for example, Eliezer Tauber, The Arab Movements in World War I (London, 1993), p.76; and his article, 'The role of Lieutenant Muhammad Sharif al-Faruqi - New Light on Anglo-Arab Relations during the First World War', Asian and African Studies, Vol.24 (1990), p.27.
89. See, for example, Eliezer Tauber, The Arab Movements in World War I (London, 1993), p.76; and his article, 'The role of Lieutenant Muhammad Sharif al-Faruqi - New Light on Anglo-Arab Relations during the First World War', Asian and African Studies, Vol.24 (1990), p.27.
90. For an archival examination of contemporary German activities in the Levant see Friedman, 'The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence', p.90.
91. Clayton, 'Memorandum'.
92. Maxwell to Kitchener, 12, 16 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/150309/152729.
93. McMahon to Grey, 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/152901. See also his telegram on 18 Oct., ibid.
94. Storrs to Fitzgerald, 12 Oct. 1915, PRO 30/57/47, Kitchener papers, QQ/46.
95. Kitchener to Maxwell, 13 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/150309.
96. Minute by George Clerk, 19 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/152901; and his comments on 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/154423.
97. McMahon to Grey, 26 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/158561.
98. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', p.78.
99. As quoted in Kedourie, The Chatham House Version, p.19.
100. A similar criticism of Cairo officialdom is offered by Kedourie's 'Cairo and Khartoum on the Arab Question, 1915-1918', The Historical Journal, Vol.VII (1964), pp.280-97, and In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth. The fundamental difference between Kedourie and us, however, is that he considers the caliphate to be Hussein's object of desire while we deem it a means to the sharif's real goal: a Hashemite empire.
101. Storrs, 'Note', 19 April 1914, FO 371/1973/87396.
102. Intelligence Department, War Office, 'Appreciation of Situation in Arabia', enclosed with Cheetham's despatch to Foreign Office, 7 Sept. 1914, FO 371/2140/51344; 'The Politics of Mecca', Jan. 1916, FO 141/461/1198.
103. Said, Asrar, pp.57-9; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, p.188.
104. Said, Asrar, pp.57-9; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, p.188.
105. Correspondence, p.13.
106. Arab Bulletin, No.6, 23 June 1916, p.47, and No.41, 6 Feb. 1917, pp.57-58, FO 882/25; McMahon to Grey, 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/154423; 'Intelligence Report', 28 Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, p.176.
107. Arab Bulletin, No.6, 23 June 1916, p.47, and No.41, 6 Feb. 1917, pp.57-58, FO 882/25; McMahon to Grey, 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/154423; 'Intelligence Report', 28 Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, p.176.
108. Arab Bulletin, No.6, 23 June 1916, p.47, and No.41, 6 Feb. 1917, pp.57-58, FO 882/25; McMahon to Grey, 20 Oct. 1915, FO 371/2486/154423; 'Intelligence Report', 28 Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, p.176.
109. Major Gabriel, 'Note on Arab Movement', 13 Nov. 1915, FO 371/2486/177016, p.402; Tauber, The Arab Movements, pp.58-9.
110. Major Gabriel, 'Note on Arab Movement', 13 Nov. 1915, FO 371/2486/177016, p.402; Tauber, The Arab Movements, pp.58-9.
111. Note by P.Z. Cox on interviews with Ibn Saud on 26 Dec., and with Sheikh Mubarak of Kuwait, 31 Dec. 1915', FO 882/8; Note by Muhammad Mustafa al-Maraghi to Wingate, 8, 25 Sept. 1915, FO 371/2486/127420 & 138500.
112. Grey to McMahon, 2 Nov.1915, FO 371/2486/163235; a petition to Grey from the 'Islamic Society', 5 June 1915, FO 371/2486/72671.
113. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.77-8; No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, pp.162-5; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, p.195; No.34, 11 Dec. 1916, pp.521-5.
114. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.77-8; No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, pp.162-5; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, p.195; No.34, 11 Dec. 1916, pp.521-5.
115. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.77-8; No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, pp.162-5; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, p.195; No.34, 11 Dec. 1916, pp.521-5.
116. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.77-8; No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, pp.162-5; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, p.195; No.34, 11 Dec. 1916, pp.521-5.
117. Al-Ahram, 25 June 1916, as brought in The Arab Bulletin, No.7, 30 June 1916, p.57.
118. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.7, 30 June 1916, pp.57-8; No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.78-80; note by Captain G.S. Symes, 'Egypt and ther Arab Movement', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 141/783/5317.
119. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.7, 30 June 1916, pp.57-8; No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.78-80; note by Captain G.S. Symes, 'Egypt and ther Arab Movement', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 141/783/5317.
120. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.7, 30 June 1916, pp.57-8; No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.78-80; note by Captain G.S. Symes, 'Egypt and ther Arab Movement', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 141/783/5317.
121. Arab Bulletin, No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, p.157; No.22, 19 Sept. 1916, pp.279-81; No.26, 16 Oct. 1916, p.373.
122. Arab Bulletin, No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, p.157; No.22, 19 Sept. 1916, pp.279-81; No.26, 16 Oct. 1916, p.373.
123. Arab Bulletin, No.15, 10 Aug. 1916, p.157; No.22, 19 Sept. 1916, pp.279-81; No.26, 16 Oct. 1916, p.373.
124. Arab Bulletin, No.25, 7 Oct. 1916, pp.338-9; Colonel Hamilton (Political Agent in Kuwait), 'Ibn Saud and His Neighbours', Arab Bulletin, No.92, 11 June 1918, pp.187-92; Report by Sir Percy Cox, 23 Dec. 1917, IOR L/P & S/10/388 (P5140), p.14.
125. Arab Bulletin, No.25, 7 Oct. 1916, pp.338-9; Colonel Hamilton (Political Agent in Kuwait), 'Ibn Saud and His Neighbours', Arab Bulletin, No.92, 11 June 1918, pp.187-92; Report by Sir Percy Cox, 23 Dec. 1917, IOR L/P & S/10/388 (P5140), p.14.
126. Arab Bulletin, No.25, 7 Oct. 1916, pp.338-9; Colonel Hamilton (Political Agent in Kuwait), 'Ibn Saud and His Neighbours', Arab Bulletin, No.92, 11 June 1918, pp.187-92; Report by Sir Percy Cox, 23 Dec. 1917, IOR L/P & S/10/388 (P5140), p.14.
127. Philip S. Khouri, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: the Politics of Damascus 1860-1920, (Cambridge, 1983), p.78.
128. Muhammad Izzat Darwaza, Hawla al-Haraka al-Arabiyya al-Haditha [On the Modern Arab Movement] (Sidon, 1950), Vol.I, p.65; Muhammad Muslih, The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism (New York, 1988), Chapter 4.
129. Muhammad Izzat Darwaza, Hawla al-Haraka al-Arabiyya al-Haditha [On the Modern Arab Movement] (Sidon, 1950), Vol.I, p.65; Muhammad Muslih, The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism (New York, 1988), Chapter 4.
130. Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, Middle East Diary, 1917-1956 (London, 1959), p.7.
131. Report on the Existing Political Condition in Palestine and Contiguous Areas by the Political Officer in Charge of the Zionist Commission, Aug. 1918, 27 Aug. 1918, FO 371/3395/147225, p.5 (231).
132. For an in-depth discussion of the relations between the various Arab participants in the revolt see, Tauber, The Arab Movements, pp.102-21.
133. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263. For further description of Arabian hostility towards Syrians see: T.E. Lawrence, Secret Despatches from Arabia (London, 1939), pp.39-40.
134. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263. For further description of Arabian hostility towards Syrians see: T.E. Lawrence, Secret Despatches from Arabia (London, 1939), pp.39-40.
135. Joyce to Rees Mogg, 12 Dec. 1916, Joyce Collection, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London.
136. Musa, al-Haraka al-Arabiyya, p.71.
137. See, for example, Walton to Secretary of Government of India, 29 May 1916, FO 371/2773/42233; 'The Sharif of Mecca and the Arab Movement', Memorandum prepared by the General Staff, 1 July 1916, CAB 42/16/1; FO 882/19, 16 May 1916 (Arab Bureau); Mark Sykes Papers DR 588, DS 244.4 (Oxford, St. Antony's College, Middle East Centre); David Hunter Miller, My Diary at the Conference of Paris (New York, 1924), Vol.14, p.230.
138. See, for example, Walton to Secretary of Government of India, 29 May 1916, FO 371/2773/42233; 'The Sharif of Mecca and the Arab Movement', Memorandum prepared by the General Staff, 1 July 1916, CAB 42/16/1; FO 882/19, 16 May 1916 (Arab Bureau); Mark Sykes Papers DR 588, DS 244.4 (Oxford, St. Antony's College, Middle East Centre); David Hunter Miller, My Diary at the Conference of Paris (New York, 1924), Vol.14, p.230.
139. See, for example, Said, Asrar, pp.307-310; Suleiman Musa, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra, al-Harb fi-l-Urdun 1917-1918: Mudhakkarat al-Amir Zaid [The Great Arab Revolt, the War in Jordan 1917-18: Memoirs of Emir Zaid] (Amman, 1976), p.202.
140. See, for example, Said, Asrar, pp.307-310; Suleiman Musa, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya al-Kubra, al-Harb fi-l-Urdun 1917-1918: Mudhakkarat al-Amir Zaid [The Great Arab Revolt, the War in Jordan 1917-18: Memoirs of Emir Zaid] (Amman, 1976), p.202.
141. Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.82-3; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, pp.195-6; No.20, 13 Sept. 1916, pp.241-2; No.23, 26 Sept. 1916, p.302.
142. Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.82-3; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, pp.195-6; No.20, 13 Sept. 1916, pp.241-2; No.23, 26 Sept. 1916, p.302.
143. Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.82-3; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, pp.195-6; No.20, 13 Sept. 1916, pp.241-2; No.23, 26 Sept. 1916, p.302.
144. Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, pp.82-3; No.17, 30 Aug. 1916, pp.195-6; No.20, 13 Sept. 1916, pp.241-2; No.23, 26 Sept. 1916, p.302.
145. Arab Bulletin, No.9, 9 July 1916, p.83.
146. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.125-9; Storrs, Orientations, pp.182-7; 'The Sharif's visit to Mecca', FO 686/6, Dec. 1916.
147. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.125-9; Storrs, Orientations, pp.182-7; 'The Sharif's visit to Mecca', FO 686/6, Dec. 1916.
148. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.125-9; Storrs, Orientations, pp.182-7; 'The Sharif's visit to Mecca', FO 686/6, Dec. 1916.
149. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', pp.163-7, 194-5, 238-46; Report by the War Office, London, 18 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3381/18476; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.124, 135-6.
150. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', pp.163-7, 194-5, 238-46; Report by the War Office, London, 18 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3381/18476; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.124, 135-6.
151. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', pp.163-7, 194-5, 238-46; Report by the War Office, London, 18 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3381/18476; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.124, 135-6.
152. Arab Bulletin, No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.307-8; No.67, 30 Oct. 1917, pp.428-9; No.70, 21 Nov. 1917, p.466.
153. Arab Bulletin, No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.307-8; No.67, 30 Oct. 1917, pp.428-9; No.70, 21 Nov. 1917, p.466.
154. Arab Bulletin, No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.307-8; No.67, 30 Oct. 1917, pp.428-9; No.70, 21 Nov. 1917, p.466.
155. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, p.128; Lawrence, Secret Despatches, p.23. See also his report in the Arab Bulletin, No.32, 11 Nov. 1916, pp.477-81; David Holden and Richarcd Johan, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York, 1981), p.53.
156. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, p.128; Lawrence, Secret Despatches, p.23. See also his report in the Arab Bulletin, No.32, 11 Nov. 1916, pp.477-81; David Holden and Richarcd Johan, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York, 1981), p.53.
157. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, p.128; Lawrence, Secret Despatches, p.23. See also his report in the Arab Bulletin, No.32, 11 Nov. 1916, pp.477-81; David Holden and Richarcd Johan, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York, 1981), p.53.
158. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, p.128; Lawrence, Secret Despatches, p.23. See also his report in the Arab Bulletin, No.32, 11 Nov. 1916, pp.477-81; David Holden and Richarcd Johan, The House of Saud: The Rise and Fall of the Most Powerful Dynasty in the Arab World (New York, 1981), p.53.
159. Arab Bulletin, No.66, 21 Oct. 1917, p.415.
160. Joyce to Clayton, 27 Sept. 1917, Transcription from Aqaba/I/H/77-78, Joyce Collection, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London.
161. Anthony Nutting, Lawrence of Arabia (London, 1961), p.99.
162. Arab Bulletin, No.66, 21 Oct. 1917, pp.412-14.
163. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, pp.127-8; Bimbashi Garland, 'General Report on Demolition Work with Sharif Abdullah', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.17-19, and 17 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.20-21.
164. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, pp.127-8; Bimbashi Garland, 'General Report on Demolition Work with Sharif Abdullah', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.17-19, and 17 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.20-21.
165. Arab Bulletin, No.45, 23 March 1917, pp.127-8; Bimbashi Garland, 'General Report on Demolition Work with Sharif Abdullah', 14 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.17-19, and 17 Aug. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.20-21.
166. C.E. Vickery, 'Memorandum on the general situation in Arabia (Hijaz) and the policy and organization of the British Mission to Grand Sharif, Feb. 2, 1917', FO 882/6. See also his report from 26 Feb. 1917, FO 686/6.
167. 'Report by Lt.-Colonel Newcombe, D.S.O, R.E., Wejh', May 1917, FO 686/6.
168. Report from Lawrence to Wilson, 16 Jan. 1917, FO 686/6; T.E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Garden City, 1935), p.212. Though there is no reason to question this particular description of Abdullah, it must be borne in mind that there was no love lost between Lawrence and Abdullah, who believed that 'Lawrence appeared only to require people who had no views of their own, that he might impress his personal ideas upon them'. Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Memoirs of King Abdullah, p.171.
169. Report from Lawrence to Wilson, 16 Jan. 1917, FO 686/6; T.E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom (Garden City, 1935), p.212. Though there is no reason to question this particular description of Abdullah, it must be borne in mind that there was no love lost between Lawrence and Abdullah, who believed that 'Lawrence appeared only to require people who had no views of their own, that he might impress his personal ideas upon them'. Abdullah Ibn Hussein, Memoirs of King Abdullah, p.171.
170. Lawrence, Seven Pillars, p.77; Tauber, The Arab Movements, p.139.
171. Lawrence, Seven Pillars, p.77; Tauber, The Arab Movements, p.139.
172. Liddell Hart, T.E. Lawrence to his Biographer, p.188; Joyce to Clayton, 27 Sept. 1917, Transcription from Aqaba/I/H/77-78, Joyce Collection, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London. When asked by Liddell Hart why he had portrayed Faisal as a heroic figure, despite his opinion to the contrary, Lawrence answered that 'it was the only way to get the British to support the Arabs'.
173. Liddell Hart, T.E. Lawrence to his Biographer, p.188; Joyce to Clayton, 27 Sept. 1917, Transcription from Aqaba/I/H/77-78, Joyce Collection, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London. When asked by Liddell Hart why he had portrayed Faisal as a heroic figure, despite his opinion to the contrary, Lawrence answered that 'it was the only way to get the British to support the Arabs'.
174. Faisal to His Excellency Wilson Pasha, 27 March 1917, FO 686/10; Faisal to T.E. Lawrence, March 1917, FO 686/6.
175. See, for example, Official History of the War: Military Operations in Egypt and Palestine from June 1917 to the end of the War, by Cyril Falls (London, 1928-30), p.405.
176. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263; No.80, 26 Feb. 1918, p.59. See also No.65, 8 Oct. 1917, p.398; No.72, 5 Dec. 1917, p.489.
177. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263; No.80, 26 Feb. 1918, p.59. See also No.65, 8 Oct. 1917, p.398; No.72, 5 Dec. 1917, p.489.
178. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263; No.80, 26 Feb. 1918, p.59. See also No.65, 8 Oct. 1917, p.398; No.72, 5 Dec. 1917, p.489.
179. Arab Bulletin, No.53, 14 June 1917, p.263; No.80, 26 Feb. 1918, p.59. See also No.65, 8 Oct. 1917, p.398; No.72, 5 Dec. 1917, p.489.
180. For this episode see: Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.105-6; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, p.150. For the sharif's own mellowed account see 'Sharif's Visit to Jedda', Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, pp.149-50.
181. For this episode see: Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.105-6; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, p.150. For the sharif's own mellowed account see 'Sharif's Visit to Jedda', Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, pp.149-50.
182. For this episode see: Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.105-6; Antonius, The Arab Awakening, p.150. For the sharif's own mellowed account see 'Sharif's Visit to Jedda', Dec. 1916, FO 686/6, pp.149-50.
183. Arab Bulletin, No.25, 7 Oct. 1916, pp.338-9.
184. Musa, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, pp.52-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.110-11.
185. Musa, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, pp.52-3; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, pp.110-11.
186. Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth, p.131.
187. Arab Bureau, 'Summary of Historical Documents', pp.145-6.
188. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.105-7; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.111; and idem, Asrar, pp.52-3.
189. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.105-7; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.111; and idem, Asrar, pp.52-3.
190. Abdullah, Mudhakkirati, pp.105-7; Said, al-Thawra al-Arabiyya, Vol.I, p.111; and idem, Asrar, pp.52-3.
191. Arab Bulletin, No.49, 30 April 1917, p.193.
192. Djemal to Faisal, Nov. 1917, FO 371/3395/12077; see also David Hogarth's comments in Arab Bulletin, No.74, 24 Dec. 1917, pp.402-3. Djemal also sent a letter to the sharif himself, but this was apparently not passed to the British.
193. See, for example, Sykes to War Office, 30 April 1917, FO 882/16; Wingate to Foreign Office, May 7, 1917, FO 371/3054/93335; Arab Bulletin, No.50, 13 May 1917, p.207.
194. See, for example, Sykes to War Office, 30 April 1917, FO 882/16; Wingate to Foreign Office, May 7, 1917, FO 371/3054/93335; Arab Bulletin, No.50, 13 May 1917, p.207.
195. Joyce to Clayton, 17 Sept. 1917, Joyce Papers, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London.
196. For Faisal's draft reply and Hussein's response see: Wingate to Balfour, 25 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3395/12077; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.154, 156, 158-9; Arab Bulletin, No.75, 3 Jan. 1918, p.521.
197. For Faisal's draft reply and Hussein's response see: Wingate to Balfour, 25 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3395/12077; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.154, 156, 158-9; Arab Bulletin, No.75, 3 Jan. 1918, p.521.
198. For Faisal's draft reply and Hussein's response see: Wingate to Balfour, 25 Dec. 1917, FO 371/3395/12077; Musa, al-Murasalat, pp.154, 156, 158-9; Arab Bulletin, No.75, 3 Jan. 1918, p.521.
199. Lawrence, Seven Pillars, pp.554-5.
200. Liddell Hart, T.E. Lawrence to his Biographer, p.142 (recording a conversation with Lawrence, 1 Aug. 1933).
201. . Count Bernstorff, Memoirs (Berlin, 1936), p.179.
202. Dawnay to Joyce, 27 May 1918, Joyce Collection, M/20, Liddell Hart Military Archives, King's College London.
203. Djemal to Faisal, translation enclosed with Joyce to General Staff, Hijaz Operations, 5 June 1918, WO 158/634. For the British setbacks in Salt, northwestern Transjordan see Official History of the War, Chapters XV, XVII.
204. Faisal's to Djemal, 11 June 1918, FO 371/3881/146256.
205. Bonn State Archives, IA Türkei 165 43 Pera Telgram 22.8. 1918 Secret: Report by the German Ambassador on a conversation with Talaat Pasha, as cited in Desmond Morris, T.E. Lawrence (London, 1977), pp.172, 324 fn 14. See also Musa, al-Murasalat, p.210. Arab historian Suleiman Musa vehemently denies any intention on Faisal's side to make separate peace with Turkey because the latter 'was known to be level-headed and prudent', though conceding his making several secret offers to Djemal. What would have happened had Djemal accepted these offers Musa does not say. Suleiman Musa, T.E. Lawrence: an Arab View (London, 1966), pp.179-82.
206. Bonn State Archives, IA Türkei 165 43 Pera Telgram 22.8. 1918 Secret: Report by the German Ambassador on a conversation with Talaat Pasha, as cited in Desmond Morris, T.E. Lawrence (London, 1977), pp.172, 324 fn 14. See also Musa, al-Murasalat, p.210. Arab historian Suleiman Musa vehemently denies any intention on Faisal's side to make separate peace with Turkey because the latter 'was known to be level-headed and prudent', though conceding his making several secret offers to Djemal. What would have happened had Djemal accepted these offers Musa does not say. Suleiman Musa, T.E. Lawrence: an Arab View (London, 1966), pp.179-82.
207. Bonn State Archives, IA Türkei 165 43 Pera Telgram 22.8. 1918 Secret: Report by the German Ambassador on a conversation with Talaat Pasha, as cited in Desmond Morris, T.E. Lawrence (London, 1977), pp.172, 324 fn 14. See also Musa, al-Murasalat, p.210. Arab historian Suleiman Musa vehemently denies any intention on Faisal's side to make separate peace with Turkey because the latter 'was known to be level-headed and prudent', though conceding his making several secret offers to Djemal. What would have happened had Djemal accepted these offers Musa does not say. Suleiman Musa, T.E. Lawrence: an Arab View (London, 1966), pp.179-82.
208. T.E. Lawrence to W. Yale, 22 Oct. 1919, in David Garnett (ed.), Letters of T.E. Lawrence (London, 1938), p.672.
209. This is also the view of Arab historian Suleiman Musa, 'The Role of Syrians and Iraqis in the Arab Revolt', Middle East Forum, Vol.43 (1967), p.11.
210. Report by T.E. Lawrence, 30 July 1917, FO 686/8.
211. 'Faisal's Table Talk', in a report to Colonel Wilson by T.E. Lawrence, 8 Jan. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.121, 123; H. Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton, 1978), p.25.
212. 'Faisal's Table Talk', in a report to Colonel Wilson by T.E. Lawrence, 8 Jan. 1917, FO 686/6, pp.121, 123; H. Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq (Princeton, 1978), p.25.
213. David Hogarth, 'Mission to King Hussein', Arab Bulletin, 27 Jan. 1918, pp.23-4.
214. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.32, 26 Nov. 1916, pp.473-5; No.53, 14 June 1917, pp.267-9; No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.312-14; No.60, 20 Aug. 1917, pp.346-7; No.76, 13 Jan. 1918, pp.9-14.
215. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.32, 26 Nov. 1916, pp.473-5; No.53, 14 June 1917, pp.267-9; No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.312-14; No.60, 20 Aug. 1917, pp.346-7; No.76, 13 Jan. 1918, pp.9-14.
216. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.32, 26 Nov. 1916, pp.473-5; No.53, 14 June 1917, pp.267-9; No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.312-14; No.60, 20 Aug. 1917, pp.346-7; No.76, 13 Jan. 1918, pp.9-14.
217. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.32, 26 Nov. 1916, pp.473-5; No.53, 14 June 1917, pp.267-9; No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.312-14; No.60, 20 Aug. 1917, pp.346-7; No.76, 13 Jan. 1918, pp.9-14.
218. See, for example, Arab Bulletin, No.32, 26 Nov. 1916, pp.473-5; No.53, 14 June 1917, pp.267-9; No.57, 24 July 1917, pp.312-14; No.60, 20 Aug. 1917, pp.346-7; No.76, 13 Jan. 1918, pp.9-14.
219. 'Statements made on behalf of His Majesty's Government during the year 1918 in regard to the Future Status of certain parts of the Ottoman Empire', Cmd. 5964 (London, 1939), p.4.
220. Hogarth, 'Mission to King Hussein', pp.22-3.