Transition under Eltsin: The nomenklatura and political elite circulation

Political Studies

Volumn 45, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 855-874

  Lane, David ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039268976     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00116     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. This work was supported by the British Economic and Social Research Council under its East-West Initiative.
2. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
3. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
4. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
5. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
6. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
7. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
8. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
9. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
10. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
11. Much of current theorizing has its reference point in Eastern Europe rather than the Post USSR. See Bob Deacon 'Social Change, Social Problems and Social Policy' in Stephen White, Judy Batt and Paul G. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), p. 226. Ivan Szelenyi and Szonja Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites during the post-communist transformation', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), 615-38. This whole issue is devoted to élite recruitment in post communist Eastern Europe. Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Russia - old wine in a new bottle? The circulation and reproduction of Russian élites, 1983-1993', Theory and Society, 24 (1995) 639-68. Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 4 (July 1996). John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite transformation in central and eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 1-29, see especially p. 6. Russian sociologists and political scientists have also turned to élite theory to explain the 'transformation': see particularly G. Ashin, 'Smena elit', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1995), 40-50. I. V. Kukolev, 'Formirovanie rossiyskoy biznes-elity', Sotsiologicheski zhurnal, 3 (1995), 159-69. D. V. Badovski, 'Sovetskaya politicheskaya elita: ot "organizatsii professional'nykh revolyutsionerov" k nomenklaturnoy sisteme', Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Ser. 12 (Politicheskie nauki), 1 (1995), 22-36. O. Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti (ONS), 1 (1955), 51-65. V. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchey elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 1 (Jan-Feb 1996), 32-8. This article is based on the comparative research project headed by Ivan Selenyi, mentioned above.
12. To take two examples: Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod in How the Soviet Union is Governed (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1979), has no chapter or even sub-heading on the topic, though there is a brief description under the responsibilities of the central committee (see pp. 430-2); George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi in The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (Brighton, Harvester, 1979) also have no sub-heading. Curiously, Gil Eyal and Eleanor Townsley ('The social composition of the Communist nomenklatura. A comparison of Russia, Poland and Hungary', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), p. 726) regard this book as the 'best account of the nature of the nomenklatura in state socialism'. However, in the pages cited by these authors (186-207) the nomenklatura as such is not mentioned at all and the discussion hinges on the 'ruling élite', which is not defined (though it is implied to be the Party leadership around the General Secretary), and the power of the 'intellectual class'. Konrad and Szelenyi here discuss the role of the party and the bureaucracy but not the nomenklatura.
13. To take two examples: Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod in How the Soviet Union is Governed (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1979), has no chapter or even sub-heading on the topic, though there is a brief description under the responsibilities of the central committee (see pp. 430-2); George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi in The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (Brighton, Harvester, 1979) also have no sub-heading. Curiously, Gil Eyal and Eleanor Townsley ('The social composition of the Communist nomenklatura. A comparison of Russia, Poland and Hungary', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), p. 726) regard this book as the 'best account of the nature of the nomenklatura in state socialism'. However, in the pages cited by these authors (186-207) the nomenklatura as such is not mentioned at all and the discussion hinges on the 'ruling élite', which is not defined (though it is implied to be the Party leadership around the General Secretary), and the power of the 'intellectual class'. Konrad and Szelenyi here discuss the role of the party and the bureaucracy but not the nomenklatura.
14. To take two examples: Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod in How the Soviet Union is Governed (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1979), has no chapter or even sub-heading on the topic, though there is a brief description under the responsibilities of the central committee (see pp. 430-2); George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi in The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (Brighton, Harvester, 1979) also have no sub-heading. Curiously, Gil Eyal and Eleanor Townsley ('The social composition of the Communist nomenklatura. A comparison of Russia, Poland and Hungary', Theory and Society, 24 (1995), p. 726) regard this book as the 'best account of the nature of the nomenklatura in state socialism'. However, in the pages cited by these authors (186-207) the nomenklatura as such is not mentioned at all and the discussion hinges on the 'ruling élite', which is not defined (though it is implied to be the Party leadership around the General Secretary), and the power of the 'intellectual class'. Konrad and Szelenyi here discuss the role of the party and the bureaucracy but not the nomenklatura.
15. See particularly: N. Yu. Lapina, Rukovoditeli gosudarstvennykh predpriyatiy Rossii v prostesse formirovaniya rynochnykh otnosheniy (Moscow, Institut nauchnoy informatsii po obshchestvennym naukam, 1995). See especially pp. 73-7.
16. For an excellent discussion sec: Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London, Macmillan, 1984).
17. O. Kryshtanovskuyu, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad', ONS, (1955), p. 52.
18. Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London, Macmillan, 1994), p. 166; Peter Rutland, The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 35. Paul Willerton refers to the 'nomenklatura élite' composed of 'up to three million in the 1980s' - 'Executive power and political leadership' in White et al., Developments in Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics, p. 49.
19. Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London, Macmillan, 1994), p. 166; Peter Rutland, The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 35. Paul Willerton refers to the 'nomenklatura élite' composed of 'up to three million in the 1980s' - 'Executive power and political leadership' in White et al., Developments in Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics, p. 49.
20. Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London, Macmillan, 1994), p. 166; Peter Rutland, The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 35. Paul Willerton refers to the 'nomenklatura élite' composed of 'up to three million in the 1980s' - 'Executive power and political leadership' in White et al., Developments in Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics, p. 49.
21. Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet nomenklatura to Russian élite', p. 714.
22. The empirical basis of their research reports are derived (as far as the USSR/Russia is concerned) from a 'random sample' of 854 respondents in post in 1988: 212 from the 'Party nomenklatura' and 370, 60 and 212 from the State, economic and cultural nomenklaturas. Valuable as this information is, if these data are random samples of the various constituencies (party, state, economic, cultural) they cannot be representative of the various 'élites', though they may include members of the élite in their number. See Table 1, Hanley et al., 'Russia: old wine in a new bottle?', p. 650 and the account by Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 620.
23. The empirical basis of their research reports are derived (as far as the USSR/Russia is concerned) from a 'random sample' of 854 respondents in post in 1988: 212 from the 'Party nomenklatura' and 370, 60 and 212 from the State, economic and cultural nomenklaturas. Valuable as this information is, if these data are random samples of the various constituencies (party, state, economic, cultural) they cannot be representative of the various 'élites', though they may include members of the élite in their number. See Table 1, Hanley et al., 'Russia: old wine in a new bottle?', p. 650 and the account by Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 620.
24. Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 631.
25. Ian McAllister and Stephen White, 'The legacy of the nomenklatura: economic privilege in postcommunist Russia', Coexistence, 32 (1995), p. 220.
26. Eyal and Townsley, 'The social composition of the Communist nomenklatura', p. 730.
27. Higley and Pakulski, 'Elite transformation', p. 6.
28. Olga Khryshtanovskaya, 'Finansovaya oligarkhiya v Rossii', Izvestiya, (January 10, 1996).
29. Olga Khryshtanovskaya, Izvestiya, (January 10, 1996), p. 4. For a more scholarly version see the article by the same author cited in reference 2 above. This view is echoed by Dmitri Iurev who has concluded that '... the nomenklatura era has certainly ended, but the nomenklatura system remains. The nomenklatura ... retain 80-90% of the actual positions in the bodies of power at all levels ... What we have called the revenge of the nomenklatura is developing right now'. Interview with Dmitri Iurev (expert with 'RF-Politica') conducted by Robert Minasov, and reported in the article, 'Nomenklatura prepares to take revenge', Rossiyskava Gazeta, (March 4, 1992), p. 2. translated in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press (CDPSP), XLIV, 9 (1992), 22-3.
30. Olga Khryshtanovskaya, Izvestiya, (January 10, 1996), p. 4. For a more scholarly version see the article by the same author cited in reference 2 above. This view is echoed by Dmitri Iurev who has concluded that '... the nomenklatura era has certainly ended, but the nomenklatura system remains. The nomenklatura ... retain 80-90% of the actual positions in the bodies of power at all levels ... What we have called the revenge of the nomenklatura is developing right now'. Interview with Dmitri Iurev (expert with 'RF-Politica') conducted by Robert Minasov, and reported in the article, 'Nomenklatura prepares to take revenge', Rossiyskava Gazeta, (March 4, 1992), p. 2. translated in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press (CDPSP), XLIV, 9 (1992), 22-3.
31. Olga Khryshtanovskaya, Izvestiya, (January 10, 1996), p. 4. For a more scholarly version see the article by the same author cited in reference 2 above. This view is echoed by Dmitri Iurev who has concluded that '... the nomenklatura era has certainly ended, but the nomenklatura system remains. The nomenklatura ... retain 80-90% of the actual positions in the bodies of power at all levels ... What we have called the revenge of the nomenklatura is developing right now'. Interview with Dmitri Iurev (expert with 'RF-Politica') conducted by Robert Minasov, and reported in the article, 'Nomenklatura prepares to take revenge', Rossiyskava Gazeta, (March 4, 1992), p. 2. translated in Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press (CDPSP), XLIV, 9 (1992), 22-3.
32. McAllister and White, 'The legacy of the nomenklatura', pp. 233, 231.
33. Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites'.
34. Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 624.
35. Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 626.
36. Szelenyi and Szelenyi, 'Circulation or reproduction of élites', p. 636.
37. This is a type of solidarity based on a 'similarity between individuals', on repressive sanctions, collective authority, the attachment of values to societies. It is contrasted with 'organic' solidarity which is based on the division of labour, markets, differentiated law, individual authority and the values of individualism.
38. Cited by T. Bottomore, Elites and Society (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1964), p. 14.
39. Kryshtanovskaya for example, points out that the new élites originate from the second and third ranks of the nomenklatura, assuming that this was a unitary group. 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad' Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti, 1 (1955), p. 65. Konrad and Szelenyi, in an earlier work which has inspired many of the contemporary analyses, assume a fusion of the Party with the inteligentsia and do not distinguish the different sources and ambiguities of power and interest. Konrad and Szelenyi, The Intellectuals on the Road, see p. 191.
40. Kryshtanovskaya for example, points out that the new élites originate from the second and third ranks of the nomenklatura, assuming that this was a unitary group. 'Staraya nomenklatura na novy lad' Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennosti, 1 (1955), p. 65. Konrad and Szelenyi, in an earlier work which has inspired many of the contemporary analyses, assume a fusion of the Party with the inteligentsia and do not distinguish the different sources and ambiguities of power and interest. Konrad and Szelenyi, The Intellectuals on the Road, see p. 191.
41. Harasymiw points out that social development in the USSR would lead to changes in recruitment. See Political Elite Recruitment, p. 24.
42. Terry Cox, following Stephen Whitefield, Industrial Power and the Soviet State (Oxford, Clarendon, 1993) details these problems. See Terry Cox, From Perestroika to Privatisation (Aldershot, Avebury, 1996), p. 48.
43. Terry Cox, following Stephen Whitefield, Industrial Power and the Soviet State (Oxford, Clarendon, 1993) details these problems. See Terry Cox, From Perestroika to Privatisation (Aldershot, Avebury, 1996), p. 48.
44. See David Lane, The Rise and Fall of State Socialism (Oxford, Polity, 1996), pp. 156-70.
45. Pareto, cited by Geraint Parry, Political Elites (London, Allen and Unwin, 1969), p. 47.
46. Higley and Pakulski, 'Elite transformation', pp. 417-8. They identify ideology as a characteristic defining the élite structure of a partocratic regime; my hypothesis is that it is a factor influencing the élite of any regime (see Fig. 1. below).
47. Following Robert Dahl, polyarchy is a relatively but incompletely democratized regime. It involves the articulation of interests through unequal political blocks and the unequal power of political élites and accepts the exclusion of many potential political actors. Polyarchy (New Haven CT, Yale University Press, 1971), p. 8.
48. On settlements see: Michael G. Burton and John Higley, 'Elite settlements', American Sociological Review, 52 (June 1987), 295-307.
49. Jacek Wasilewski ('The patterns of bureaucratic élite recruitment in Poland in the 1970s and 1980s', Soviet Studies, 42, 4 (1990) 743-57) attempted to operationalize the problem by asking members of the bureaucratic élite and citizens of Warsaw and Lublin to assess the importance of various factors. The research was done in two periods: 1972, 1972, 1985 and 1986. The questions referred to meritocratic criteria (education, occupational skill and performance), patronage (nomenklatura, personal contacts) and ascription (sex, parental background, place of residence, social origin). Here an attempt was made to ask questions comparable to this research.
50. The executive élite was specified in terms of persons who were Ministers, deputy ministers, chairs of committees of the government of the Russian Federation (also included was one chair of a Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States). The executive also included members of the President's own apparatus and his political advisers. Of this group, 39 people were interviewed.
51. This part of the political élite was composed of two parts: the law makers and the legal adjudicators, the former was made up of leading deputies of the Russian Parliament - those who held a position of chair, deputy chair, or secretary to a Parliamentary committee or commission: the second part included 7 members of the Constitutional Court - in all 43 interviewees.
52. The leaders of parties or groups who also had been elected to the Russian Parliament - a total of 18 respondents.
53. It should be remembered that during the period in question (January 1992 to December 1993) there was movement between the above sectors of the political élite members of the Parliament moving into and out of Eltsin's Presidential apparatus. The questionnaire was devised by the author, the interviews were organized and carried out under the supervision of Elena Bashkirova and Vera Voynova of ROMIR, Rossiyskoe obshchestvennoe mnenie i issledovanie rynka.
54. Interviews here were conducted in the autumn of 1993 with three sectors of the political élite: (1) 59 members of the Soviet government élite, (2) 24 of the Party élite and (3) 33 'influentials', including members of the Supreme Soviet - a total of 116. My sample included 8 members of the Politburo, 9 Secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPSU, 18 heads of Central Committee departments and heads of commissions; 11 members of the Presidium of the USSR Council of Ministers, 53 ministers and chairs of state committees of the USSR; the third group included 8 people who were 'Party professionals' (leading academics in the Party schools, editors of Party journals and papers), 36 people from research and higher educational institutions, 31 from voluntary and trade union positions and six from international associations. (Figures here include overlapping positions). For further details of this research see: David Lane, 'The Gorbachev revolution: the role of the political élite in regime disintegration', Political Studies, 44 (1996), p. 7.
55. The question asked was: We would like to ask you now about your experience and opinions concerning the Soviet system in its last years of existence, say from 1987 to 1991. In your experience of people being promoted to positions of authority, how would you evaluate the importance of the
56. This result is similar to Wasilewski's though his question refers to 'Party membership' rather than the influence of the nomenklatura.
57. Wasilewski's study of Lublin residents in 1985 gave a similar result: the most important influence was personal connections and Party membership: Wasilewski, 'Patterns of bureaucratic élite recruitment', p. 752.
58. For a detailed empirical study of the occupational background and qualifications of the government élite see particularly, David Lane and Cameron Ross, 'Limitations of party control', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 27, 1 (1994), 19-38.
59. On the recruitment of the Eltsin élite see: David Lane and Cameron Ross, 'The Changing Composition and Structure of the Political Elites' in David Lane (ed.), Russia in Transition (London, Longman, 1995), pp. 52-75.
60. Respondents were asked to rate the following: Colleagues at work, Family members, Friends, (if so what kind) - from school?, ex work colleagues?, other friends?. People with whom you associate politically, I never turned to others for advice, Others (Open ended).
61. The open ended question here also gave rise to specific answers: leaders of the country (9) and colleagues with specialized knowledge (5) being the most frequent responses.
62. A. Giddens, 'Elites in the British Class Structure' in P. Stanworth and A. Giddens (eds), Elites and Power in British Society (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1974), pp. 5-7.
63. Joel D. Aberbach, Robert D. Putnam and Bert A. Rockman, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1981), p. 195.
64. The question asked was: Since the collapse of the old centrally controlled economy and Party led state, some people have looked to other countries for a model. What country if any would you regard as a model for the future development of Russia?
65. Other West European countries (9), China 2, Japan 2 and North Korea 2. These results include multiple answers.
66. For the Gorbachev élite the most frequently cited country was China (15), followed by Scandinavia (13), German (12) and the USA (11).
67. These results have been corroborated at the level of the public as a whole. A national survey of a representative sample of the Russian population reported in June 1994 found that only 22% of the respondents believed that Russia 'should develop like West European countries', whereas 78% answered positively to: 'our country should develop according to our own traditions'. Richard Rose and Christian Haerpfer, 'New Russia Barometer III: the results', Studies in Public Policy, 228 (1 June 1994), p. 22.
68. On democratic transitions and breakdowns see John Higley and Michael G. Burton, 'The élite variable in democratic transitions and breakdowns', American Sociological Review, 54 (1989) 17-32. G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions form Authoritarian Rule; Tentative Conclusions (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1986).
69. On democratic transitions and breakdowns see John Higley and Michael G. Burton, 'The élite variable in democratic transitions and breakdowns', American Sociological Review, 54 (1989) 17-32. G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions form Authoritarian Rule; Tentative Conclusions (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins, 1986).