Enduring traditions and new directions in feminist ethnography in the Caribbean and latin America

Feminist Studies

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 423-458

  Freeman, Carla ^a   Murdock, Donna F ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039255565     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178768     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Sidney W. Mintz, "Sow's Ears and Silver Linings: A Backward Look at Ethnography," Current Anthropology 41 (April 2000): 169-90. See also, Micaela di Leonardo's Exotics at Home: Anthropologies, Others, American Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1998).
2. Sidney W. Mintz, "Sow's Ears and Silver Linings: A Backward Look at Ethnography," Current Anthropology 41 (April 2000): 169-90. See also, Micaela di Leonardo's Exotics at Home: Anthropologies, Others, American Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1998).
3. Judith Stacey, "Can There Be a Feminist Ethnography?" Women's Studies International Forum 11, no. 1 (1988): 22-23.
4. The very conceptualization of Latin America and the Caribbean as a region is, to some degree, a debated artifact of scholarly invention (cf. Sidney W. Mintz, "The Caribbean Region," Daedalus 103, no. 2 [1974]: 45-71). Certainly the confluences along linguistic, cultural, economic, political, and ecological lines are as numerous as the disjunctures and differences. This article will not cover all of South and Central America and the Caribbean territories but attempts to describe patterns in feminist ethnography from this part of the world that seem to be less pervasive in other world areas.
5. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse," in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 52-80; Aihwa Ong, "Colonialism and Modernity: Feminist Re-Presentations of Women in Non-Western Societies," Inscriptions 3, no. 4 (1988): 79-93.
6. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourse," in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 52-80; Aihwa Ong, "Colonialism and Modernity: Feminist Re-Presentations of Women in Non-Western Societies," Inscriptions 3, no. 4 (1988): 79-93.
7. Marjorie Shostak, Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung Woman (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981). Here, the reflexive voice, first-person narrative, and explicit agenda of reading Nisa's life in hopes of better understanding the shared plight of women everywhere exemplified a departure from traditional masculinist ethnographic conventions of authority and distance in the placement of the ethnographer.
8. The shift from studies of women to an exploration of gender (ideology, practice, and politics) has in some sense been liberating and opened up new ways of investigating and interpreting cultural dimensions of Latin American and Caribbean life. On the other hand, this shift may have some (unintended or not) problematic consequences. If one of the goals of early feminist work was to turn serious scholarly attention to women's lives in order to work toward greater equality and to reduce the various forms of inequality, the shift toward gender studies risks turning attention away from women with the claim that this agenda has already been met.
9. One such articulation is that of Sylvia Wynter, in the volume Out of the Kumbla edited by Carole Boyce Davies and Elaine Savory Fido (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990), in which she hails the revolutionary promise of Caribbean literary criticism that moves "towards the epochal threshold of a new postmodern and post-Western mode of cognitive inquiry; one which goes beyond the limits of our present human sciences, to constitute itself a new science of human forms of life" (p. 356). See also Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman Version: Theoretical Approaches to West Indian Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Helen Pyne-Timothy, ed., The Woman, the Writer, and Caribbean Society: Essays on Literature and Culture (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies Publications, UCLA, 1998).
10. One such articulation is that of Sylvia Wynter, in the volume Out of the Kumbla edited by Carole Boyce Davies and Elaine Savory Fido (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990), in which she hails the revolutionary promise of Caribbean literary criticism that moves "towards the epochal threshold of a new postmodern and post-Western mode of cognitive inquiry; one which goes beyond the limits of our present human sciences, to constitute itself a new science of human forms of life" (p. 356). See also Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman Version: Theoretical Approaches to West Indian Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Helen Pyne-Timothy, ed., The Woman, the Writer, and Caribbean Society: Essays on Literature and Culture (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies Publications, UCLA, 1998).
11. One such articulation is that of Sylvia Wynter, in the volume Out of the Kumbla edited by Carole Boyce Davies and Elaine Savory Fido (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1990), in which she hails the revolutionary promise of Caribbean literary criticism that moves "towards the epochal threshold of a new postmodern and post-Western mode of cognitive inquiry; one which goes beyond the limits of our present human sciences, to constitute itself a new science of human forms of life" (p. 356). See also Evelyn O'Callaghan, Woman Version: Theoretical Approaches to West Indian Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1993); and Helen Pyne-Timothy, ed., The Woman, the Writer, and Caribbean Society: Essays on Literature and Culture (Los Angeles: Center for Afro-American Studies Publications, UCLA, 1998).
12. The emergence of ethnography of gendered experience is an important exception; however, relative to other world areas, it seems that in Latin American and Caribbean ethnography this approach to feminist ethnography has been less pervasive. See Ruth Behar, Translated Woman (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993), where her life-history, auto-ethnography approach to Esperanza's Story represents one extreme end of a continuum of this body of work.
13. Eudine Barriteau, "Postmodernist Feminist Theorizing and Development Policy and Practice in the Anglophone Carribean," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, ed. Marianne H. Marchand and Jane L. Parpart (New York: Routledge, 1995), 142-58.
14. Arjun Appadurai, "Theory in Anthropology: Center and Periphery," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 357; see also Richard Fardon, Localizing Strategies: Regional Traditions of Ethnographic Writing (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); and Lila Abu-Lughod's review article, "Zones of Theory in the Anthropology of the Arab World," Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 276-306. Appadurai, 357.
15. Arjun Appadurai, "Theory in Anthropology: Center and Periphery," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 357; see also Richard Fardon, Localizing Strategies: Regional Traditions of Ethnographic Writing (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); and Lila Abu-Lughod's review article, "Zones of Theory in the Anthropology of the Arab World," Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 276-306. Appadurai, 357.
16. Arjun Appadurai, "Theory in Anthropology: Center and Periphery," Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (January 1986): 357; see also Richard Fardon, Localizing Strategies: Regional Traditions of Ethnographic Writing (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); and Lila Abu-Lughod's review article, "Zones of Theory in the Anthropology of the Arab World," Annual Review of Anthropology 18 (1989): 276-306. Appadurai, 357.
17. Appadurai, 357, 359. We should note at the outset that these emphases are patterns that are in no sense all-encompassing of the literature of Latin American and Caribbean studies. They do, however, demonstrate enough strength within the ethnography of the region, and in particular that of feminist ethnography, to warrant characterizing as a dominant paradigm even when accompanied by other analytical traditions.
18. In the Afro-Caribbean, dependency theory took on slightly different formulations, such as "the plantation economy model"; but its broad outlines were the same. See Norman Girvan and Owen Jefferson, eds., Readings in the Political Economy of the Caribbean (Jamaica: New World, n.d.).
19. Dependency theory, itself a product of Latin American social science, held sway in Caribbean academic as well as political arenas in Jamaica and Guyana, and certainly, along with the powerful example of Cuba's socialist revolution, influenced the intellectual frameworks across the region at large.
20. Michel Rolph Trouillot, "The Caribbean Region: An Open Frontier in Anthropological Theory," Annual Review of Anthropology 21 (1992): 19-42.
21. Carla Freeman, High Tech and High Heels in the Global Economy: Women, Work, and Pink Collar Identities in the Caribbean (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000).
22. Cornelia Butler Flora, "Beyond Exploitation and Integration: New Scholarship on Women in Latin America," Latin American Research Review 33, no. 2 (1998): 245-52.
23. Kamala Visweswaran, "Histories of Feminist Ethnography," Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997): 591-621.
24. Flora, 247.
25. See Dell Hymes, Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Vintage, 1974); and Talal Asad, Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London: Ithaca Press, 1973) for early challenges to the field of cultural anthropology.
26. See Dell Hymes, Reinventing Anthropology (New York: Vintage, 1974); and Talal Asad, Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter (London: Ithaca Press, 1973) for early challenges to the field of cultural anthropology.
27. Certainly review articles (ours being no exception) are selective. Like June Nash in her excellent review, "Gender Studies in Latin America," in Gender and Anthropology: Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching, ed. Sandra Morgen (Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1989): 228-45, Flora's review captures works that focus primarily on aspects of women's experiences in the realms of production, work, and development. Works whose focus lies outside these realms, or which adopt different narrative structures (Behar's Translated Woman, Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion [Boulder: Westview Press, 1995]) may be more often treated among works of feminist, literary, or cultural studies.
28. Certainly review articles (ours being no exception) are selective. Like June Nash in her excellent review, "Gender Studies in Latin America," in Gender and Anthropology: Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching, ed. Sandra Morgen (Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1989): 228-45, Flora's review captures works that focus primarily on aspects of women's experiences in the realms of production, work, and development. Works whose focus lies outside these realms, or which adopt different narrative structures (Behar's Translated Woman, Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion [Boulder: Westview Press, 1995]) may be more often treated among works of feminist, literary, or cultural studies.
29. Certainly review articles (ours being no exception) are selective. Like June Nash in her excellent review, "Gender Studies in Latin America," in Gender and Anthropology: Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching, ed. Sandra Morgen (Washington, D.C.: American Anthropological Association, 1989): 228-45, Flora's review captures works that focus primarily on aspects of women's experiences in the realms of production, work, and development. Works whose focus lies outside these realms, or which adopt different narrative structures (Behar's Translated Woman, Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion [Boulder: Westview Press, 1995]) may be more often treated among works of feminist, literary, or cultural studies.
30. Trouillot in his excellent survey of anthropology of the Caribbean remarks that work on gender in the region has revealed such a complexity of roles, and challenged so deeply Western models of public/private domains, that it "begs feminist theory to deWesternize its premises further" (p. 27).
31. Bruce M. Knauft, Genealogies for the Present in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Routledge, 1996), 246.
32. Ester Boserup, Woman's Role in Economic Development (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970). See also Luz del Alba Acevedo, "Feminist Inroads in the Study of Women's Work and Development," in Women in the Latin American Development Process, ed. Christine E. Bose and Edna Acosta-Belen (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 65-98.
33. Ester Boserup, Woman's Role in Economic Development (London: Allen & Unwin, 1970). See also Luz del Alba Acevedo, "Feminist Inroads in the Study of Women's Work and Development," in Women in the Latin American Development Process, ed. Christine E. Bose and Edna Acosta-Belen (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 65-98.
34. Ibid. In Boserup's case, "empowerment" meant making it possible for women to participate more equitably in a capitalist economy.
35. Lourdes Benería and Gita Sen, "Accumulation, Reproduction, and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited," Signs 7 (winter 1981): 279-98.
36. Laurel Bossen, The Redivision of Labor: Women and Economic Choice in Four Guatemalan Communities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Kristina Bohman, Women of the Barrio: Class and Gender in a Colombian City (Stockholm: Studies in Social Anthropology, 1984); Susan C. Bourque and Kay Barbara Warren, Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social Change in Two Peruvian Towns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); June Nash and Helen I. Safa, eds., Sex and Class in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1976). Benería and Sen were among the first to note the ways in which world capitalist relations and the push for "modernity" or "development" itself were harmful to women. For example, Western assumptions about "proper" gender relations often resulted in development designs that actually hindered women's participation and, in many cases, caused women's status to decline.
37. Laurel Bossen, The Redivision of Labor: Women and Economic Choice in Four Guatemalan Communities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Kristina Bohman, Women of the Barrio: Class and Gender in a Colombian City (Stockholm: Studies in Social Anthropology, 1984); Susan C. Bourque and Kay Barbara Warren, Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social Change in Two Peruvian Towns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); June Nash and Helen I. Safa, eds., Sex and Class in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1976). Benería and Sen were among the first to note the ways in which world capitalist relations and the push for "modernity" or "development" itself were harmful to women. For example, Western assumptions about "proper" gender relations often resulted in development designs that actually hindered women's participation and, in many cases, caused women's status to decline.
38. Laurel Bossen, The Redivision of Labor: Women and Economic Choice in Four Guatemalan Communities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Kristina Bohman, Women of the Barrio: Class and Gender in a Colombian City (Stockholm: Studies in Social Anthropology, 1984); Susan C. Bourque and Kay Barbara Warren, Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social Change in Two Peruvian Towns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); June Nash and Helen I. Safa, eds., Sex and Class in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1976). Benería and Sen were among the first to note the ways in which world capitalist relations and the push for "modernity" or "development" itself were harmful to women. For example, Western assumptions about "proper" gender relations often resulted in development designs that actually hindered women's participation and, in many cases, caused women's status to decline.
39. Laurel Bossen, The Redivision of Labor: Women and Economic Choice in Four Guatemalan Communities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984); Kristina Bohman, Women of the Barrio: Class and Gender in a Colombian City (Stockholm: Studies in Social Anthropology, 1984); Susan C. Bourque and Kay Barbara Warren, Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social Change in Two Peruvian Towns (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); June Nash and Helen I. Safa, eds., Sex and Class in Latin America (New York: Praeger, 1976). Benería and Sen were among the first to note the ways in which world capitalist relations and the push for "modernity" or "development" itself were harmful to women. For example, Western assumptions about "proper" gender relations often resulted in development designs that actually hindered women's participation and, in many cases, caused women's status to decline.
40. See June Nash and Helen I. Safa, eds., Women and Change in Latin America (New York: Bergin & Garvey, 1986).
41. A. Lynn Bolles and Deborah D'Amico-Samuels, "Anthropological Scholarship on Gender in the English-Speaking Caribbean," in Gender and Anthropology, 171-85.
42. Mohanty, 52-58. See also Jane L. Parpart, "Deconstructing the Development 'Expert': Gender, Development, and the 'Vulnerable Groups,'" in Feminism/Postmodernism/ Development, 221-43; Marianne H. Marchand and Jane L. Parpart, "Exploding the Canon: An Introduction/Conclusion," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 1-22; Barriteau, 142-58; Amrita Basu, ed., The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
43. Mohanty, 52-58. See also Jane L. Parpart, "Deconstructing the Development 'Expert': Gender, Development, and the 'Vulnerable Groups,'" in Feminism/Postmodernism/ Development, 221-43; Marianne H. Marchand and Jane L. Parpart, "Exploding the Canon: An Introduction/Conclusion," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 1-22; Barriteau, 142-58; Amrita Basu, ed., The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
44. Mohanty, 52-58. See also Jane L. Parpart, "Deconstructing the Development 'Expert': Gender, Development, and the 'Vulnerable Groups,'" in Feminism/Postmodernism/ Development, 221-43; Marianne H. Marchand and Jane L. Parpart, "Exploding the Canon: An Introduction/Conclusion," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 1-22; Barriteau, 142-58; Amrita Basu, ed., The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
45. Mohanty, 52-58. See also Jane L. Parpart, "Deconstructing the Development 'Expert': Gender, Development, and the 'Vulnerable Groups,'" in Feminism/Postmodernism/ Development, 221-43; Marianne H. Marchand and Jane L. Parpart, "Exploding the Canon: An Introduction/Conclusion," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 1-22; Barriteau, 142-58; Amrita Basu, ed., The Challenge of Local Feminisms: Women's Movements in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995).
46. Dorothy Smith, "Response to Judith Stacey's and Barrie Thorne's Essay," Perspectives: The ASA Theory Section Newsletter 18, no. 3 (1996): 3.
47. Flora, 246-47.
48. Nash, Gender and Anthropology, 231, 233, 239. Nash points out that "Amazonian" studies are "exceptional" in the region in that they tend to focus more on symbolic and psychological realms. One wonders to what extent a rather particular notion of the "exotic" has permeated work in these regions, such that "Hispanic" populations are rarely interpreted in terms of their "culture," while "non-Hispanic" populations more frequently are.
49. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 171; see also Christine Barrow, "Anthropology, the Family, and Women in the Caribbean," in Gender in Caribbean Development, ed. Patricia Mohammed and Catherine Shepherd (Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados: University of the West Indies, Women and Development Studies Project, 1986), 156-69.
50. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 171; see also Christine Barrow, "Anthropology, the Family, and Women in the Caribbean," in Gender in Caribbean Development, ed. Patricia Mohammed and Catherine Shepherd (Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados: University of the West Indies, Women and Development Studies Project, 1986), 156-69.
51. Acevedo (pp. 65-98) points to the importance of a household focus for understanding women's labor force participation: a connection that may thus explain why the "cultural," "symbolic," or "ideological" foci that exist in these studies most often center around the family and household.
52. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 173-76, 172. There are, of course, notable exceptions to the lacuna in the literature (e.g., Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991]; Lisa Douglas, The Power of Sentiment: Love, Hierarchy, and the Jamaican Family Elite [Boulder: Westview Press, 1992]; Sally Price, Co-Wives and Calabashes [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984]).
53. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 173-76, 172. There are, of course, notable exceptions to the lacuna in the literature (e.g., Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991]; Lisa Douglas, The Power of Sentiment: Love, Hierarchy, and the Jamaican Family Elite [Boulder: Westview Press, 1992]; Sally Price, Co-Wives and Calabashes [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984]).
54. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 173-76, 172. There are, of course, notable exceptions to the lacuna in the literature (e.g., Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991]; Lisa Douglas, The Power of Sentiment: Love, Hierarchy, and the Jamaican Family Elite [Boulder: Westview Press, 1992]; Sally Price, Co-Wives and Calabashes [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984]).
55. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 173-76, 172. There are, of course, notable exceptions to the lacuna in the literature (e.g., Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991]; Lisa Douglas, The Power of Sentiment: Love, Hierarchy, and the Jamaican Family Elite [Boulder: Westview Press, 1992]; Sally Price, Co-Wives and Calabashes [Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984]).
56. Appadurai, 356-61; see also James Clifford, "Introduction: Partial Truths," in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 1-26.
57. Appadurai, 356-61; see also James Clifford, "Introduction: Partial Truths," in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 1-26.
58. Within anthropology, critiques in the 1980s concerned issues of representation, textual production, exclusionary methodologies, theoretical foci, and so forth. Where Clifford ("Introduction") claims that feminist scholars contributed minimally to these critiques and modes of ethnographic experimentation, Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerino Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; and later Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, Women Writing Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995) demonstrate to the contrary that feminist work has been foundational to these efforts. See also Brackette F. Williams, "The Public I/Eye: Homeless Me, Working You: A Homework Report," Current Anthropology 36 (February 1995): 25-51; and M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (New York: Routledge, 1997).
59. Within anthropology, critiques in the 1980s concerned issues of representation, textual production, exclusionary methodologies, theoretical foci, and so forth. Where Clifford ("Introduction") claims that feminist scholars contributed minimally to these critiques and modes of ethnographic experimentation, Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerino Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; and later Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, Women Writing Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995) demonstrate to the contrary that feminist work has been foundational to these efforts. See also Brackette F. Williams, "The Public I/Eye: Homeless Me, Working You: A Homework Report," Current Anthropology 36 (February 1995): 25-51; and M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (New York: Routledge, 1997).
60. Within anthropology, critiques in the 1980s concerned issues of representation, textual production, exclusionary methodologies, theoretical foci, and so forth. Where Clifford ("Introduction") claims that feminist scholars contributed minimally to these critiques and modes of ethnographic experimentation, Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerino Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; and later Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, Women Writing Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995) demonstrate to the contrary that feminist work has been foundational to these efforts. See also Brackette F. Williams, "The Public I/Eye: Homeless Me, Working You: A Homework Report," Current Anthropology 36 (February 1995): 25-51; and M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (New York: Routledge, 1997).
61. Within anthropology, critiques in the 1980s concerned issues of representation, textual production, exclusionary methodologies, theoretical foci, and so forth. Where Clifford ("Introduction") claims that feminist scholars contributed minimally to these critiques and modes of ethnographic experimentation, Frances E. Mascia-Lees, Patricia Sharpe, and Colleen Ballerino Cohen, "The Postmodernist Turn in Anthropology: Cautions from a Feminist Perspective," Signs 15 (autumn 1989): 7-33; and later Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, Women Writing Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995) demonstrate to the contrary that feminist work has been foundational to these efforts. See also Brackette F. Williams, "The Public I/Eye: Homeless Me, Working You: A Homework Report," Current Anthropology 36 (February 1995): 25-51; and M. Jacqui Alexander and Chandra Talpade Mohanty, eds., Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures (New York: Routledge, 1997).
62. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
63. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
64. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
65. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
66. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
67. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
68. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
69. See Marilyn Strathern, "An Awkward Relationship: The Case of Feminism and Anthropology," Signs 12 (spring 1987): 276-92; among a number of those who have recently mapped different accounts of the history of feminist anthropology are Henrietta L. Moore, Feminism and Anthropology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), and A Passion for Difference (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1994); Micaela di Leonardo, "Introduction: Gender, Culture, and Political Economy: Feminist Anthropology in Historical Perspective," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Behar and Gordon, Women Writing Culture; and Visweswaran. See also Brackette F. Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk: Comparative Reflections on the Identity of Participant Observation in Two Field Situations," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, ed. Diane Wolf (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996), 72-95; Patricia Zavella, "Feminist Insider Dilemmas: Constructing Ethnic Identity with Chicana Informants," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 138-59; Lila Abu-Lughod, "Fieldwork of a Dutiful Daughter," in Arab Women in the Field: Studying Your Own Society, ed. Soraya Altorki and Camillia Fawzi ElSolh (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), 139-61.
70. See Daphne Patai, "U.S. Academics and Third World Women: Is Ethical Research Possible?" in Women's Words: The Feminist Practice of Oral History, ed. Sherna Berger Gluck and Daphne Patai (New York: Routledge, 1991), 137-53.
71. As many have pointed out, the hierarchies involved in fieldwork are not unidirectional nor are they constant. See Williams, "The Public I/Eye"; Margery Wolf, "Afterword: Musings from an Old Gray Wolf," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork, 215-22; and Mascia-Lees, Sharpe, and Cohen.
72. Mary Louise Pratt, "Fieldwork in Common Places," in Writing Culture, 27-50.
73. A varied array of ethnographers, including Visweswaran, Behar (1995), and Clifford and Marcus suggest textual innovation as a way of diluting this ethnographic authority. This approach sees ethnography as an enterprise of listening/interpreting, acknowledging that the production of knowledge is a dialogic process and that the ethnographer and subject play crucial parts in the production of "partial truths." For Margery Wolf, on the other hand, the paralysis wrought by these epistemological and methodological conundrums is more damaging than the ills of ethnographic authority.
74. Shostak's discussion of her approach to working with Nisa and her own feminist awakening is a telling example of this desire.
75. See Bolles, Sister Jamaica; McClaurin, Women of Belize; and Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk" for discussion of these convergences and distinctions.
76. See Bolles, Sister Jamaica; McClaurin, Women of Belize; and Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk" for discussion of these convergences and distinctions.
77. See Bolles, Sister Jamaica; McClaurin, Women of Belize; and Williams, "Skinfolk Not Kinfolk" for discussion of these convergences and distinctions.
78. Visweswaran, 591-621.
79. See Stacey; Patai.
80. This fact has led to an argument for more "native" anthropology, wherein ethnographer and subject would at least share nationality. See Margery Wolf; and also Patricia Mohammed, "Nuancing the Feminist Discourse in the Caribbean," Social and Economic Studies 43, no. 3 (1994): 135-67. However, several "native" ethnographers have written eloquently upon the multitude of ethical problems not solved by researcher/subject "likeness." See Jayati Lal, "Situating Locations: The Politics of Self, Identity, and 'Other' in Living and Writing the Text," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork; Ong, "Women Out of China: Traveling Tales and Traveling Theories in Postcolonial Feminism," in Women Writing Culture. Even "Third World" ethnographers are generally, by virtue of class and/or (foreign) education, faced with differences that echo the social inequity between ethnographer and subject. This led Laura Nader to argue that anthropologists should "study up" in her "Up the Anthropologist - Perspectives Gained from Studying Up," in Reinventing Anthropology, 284-311.
81. This fact has led to an argument for more "native" anthropology, wherein ethnographer and subject would at least share nationality. See Margery Wolf; and also Patricia Mohammed, "Nuancing the Feminist Discourse in the Caribbean," Social and Economic Studies 43, no. 3 (1994): 135-67. However, several "native" ethnographers have written eloquently upon the multitude of ethical problems not solved by researcher/subject "likeness." See Jayati Lal, "Situating Locations: The Politics of Self, Identity, and 'Other' in Living and Writing the Text," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork; Ong, "Women Out of China: Traveling Tales and Traveling Theories in Postcolonial Feminism," in Women Writing Culture. Even "Third World" ethnographers are generally, by virtue of class and/or (foreign) education, faced with differences that echo the social inequity between ethnographer and subject. This led Laura Nader to argue that anthropologists should "study up" in her "Up the Anthropologist - Perspectives Gained from Studying Up," in Reinventing Anthropology, 284-311.
82. This fact has led to an argument for more "native" anthropology, wherein ethnographer and subject would at least share nationality. See Margery Wolf; and also Patricia Mohammed, "Nuancing the Feminist Discourse in the Caribbean," Social and Economic Studies 43, no. 3 (1994): 135-67. However, several "native" ethnographers have written eloquently upon the multitude of ethical problems not solved by researcher/subject "likeness." See Jayati Lal, "Situating Locations: The Politics of Self, Identity, and 'Other' in Living and Writing the Text," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork; Ong, "Women Out of China: Traveling Tales and Traveling Theories in Postcolonial Feminism," in Women Writing Culture. Even "Third World" ethnographers are generally, by virtue of class and/or (foreign) education, faced with differences that echo the social inequity between ethnographer and subject. This led Laura Nader to argue that anthropologists should "study up" in her "Up the Anthropologist - Perspectives Gained from Studying Up," in Reinventing Anthropology, 284-311.
83. This fact has led to an argument for more "native" anthropology, wherein ethnographer and subject would at least share nationality. See Margery Wolf; and also Patricia Mohammed, "Nuancing the Feminist Discourse in the Caribbean," Social and Economic Studies 43, no. 3 (1994): 135-67. However, several "native" ethnographers have written eloquently upon the multitude of ethical problems not solved by researcher/subject "likeness." See Jayati Lal, "Situating Locations: The Politics of Self, Identity, and 'Other' in Living and Writing the Text," in Feminist Dilemmas in Fieldwork; Ong, "Women Out of China: Traveling Tales and Traveling Theories in Postcolonial Feminism," in Women Writing Culture. Even "Third World" ethnographers are generally, by virtue of class and/or (foreign) education, faced with differences that echo the social inequity between ethnographer and subject. This led Laura Nader to argue that anthropologists should "study up" in her "Up the Anthropologist - Perspectives Gained from Studying Up," in Reinventing Anthropology, 284-311.
84. Rosalind P. Petchesky, "Introduction," in Negotiating Reproductive Rights: Women's Perspectives across Countries and Cultures, ed. Rosalind P. Petchesky and Karen Judd (London: Zed Books, 1998); Behar, Translated Woman.
85. Rosalind P. Petchesky, "Introduction," in Negotiating Reproductive Rights: Women's Perspectives across Countries and Cultures, ed. Rosalind P. Petchesky and Karen Judd (London: Zed Books, 1998); Behar, Translated Woman.
86. Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
87. Mohanty. See also Lizabeth Paravisini-Gebert, "Decolonizing Feminism: The Home-Grown Roots of Caribbean Women's Movements," in Daughters of Caliban: Caribbean Women in the Twentieth Century, ed. Consuelo Lopez Springfield (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 3-17.
88. Barriteau, 142-43. Eudine Barriteau-Foster, "The Construct of a Postmodernist Feminist Theory for Caribbean Social Science Research," Social and Economic Studies 41, no. 2 (1992): 10.
89. Barriteau, 142-43. Eudine Barriteau-Foster, "The Construct of a Postmodernist Feminist Theory for Caribbean Social Science Research," Social and Economic Studies 41, no. 2 (1992): 10.
90. Acevedo, 82.
91. Ibid., 77.
92. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
93. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
94. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
95. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
96. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
97. Wendy A. Weiss, "Latin American Intellectuals and the Theoretical Trends They Promise," Anthropological Quarterly 70, no. 1 (1997): 31-39, summarizing Néstor García-Canclini, Hybird Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Exiting Modernity, trans. Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995). It is indeed ironic that the notion of "cultural imperialism" can connote a kind of agentless adoption of "foreign" ideologies and practices by Third World women and men who have been at pains to argue against this very "passive" depiction of themselves. See John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). See also Armand Mattelart, Transnationals and the Third World: The Struggle for Culture, trans. David Buxton (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1983); Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983); and Mohanty.
98. Paravisini-Gebert, 4-5. This raises the question to what extent the emphasis on "agency" itself has become another sort of gatekeeping concept within feminist ethnography in certain places. As Corinne Kratz has pointed out, the emphasis on agency is less pronounced in ethnographic work in Africa, for example (March 1999, personal conversation).
99. Also important although not reviewed are Susan Tiano, Patriarchy on the Line: Labor, Gender, and Ideology in the Mexican Maquila Industry (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Altagracia Ortiz, ed., Puerto Rican Women and Work (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996).
100. Also important although not reviewed are Susan Tiano, Patriarchy on the Line: Labor, Gender, and Ideology in the Mexican Maquila Industry (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Altagracia Ortiz, ed., Puerto Rican Women and Work (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996).
101. A. Lynn Bolles, "Kitchens Hit by Priorities: Employed Working-Class Jamaican Women Confront the IMF," in Women, Men, and the International Division of Labor, ed. June Nash and Maria Patricia Fernandez-Kelly (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 138-60.
102. Bolles and D'Amico-Samuels, 173.
103. Saskia Sassen, Globalization and Its Discontents: Essays on the New Mobility of People and Money (New York: New Press, 1998).
104. This is a weakness that Safa acknowledges, saying that she "came to recognize the importance of race in terms of its impact on employment, marital patterns, and gender ideologies too late to incorporate a full analysis." Several scholars of the region have pointed out the need to analyze the local and historical specificity of race, its meanings and its political configurations. See Arlene Torres and Norman E. Whitten Jr., eds., Blackness in
105. For example, Dorinne Kondo, Crafting Selves: Power, Gender, and Discourses of Identity in a Japanese Workplace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
106. See Peter J. Wilson, Crab Antics: A Caribbean Case Study of the Conflict between Reputation and Respectability (Prospect Heights, Ill: Waveland Press, 1969). This formulation resembles the "casa-calle" system which Safa describes in her book for the Hispanic Caribbean.
107. See Kondo; Freeman.
108. See Jane S. Jaquette, ed., The Women's Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994); Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, N.H.: University of New England Press, 1991); Sarah A. Radcliffe and Sallie Westwood, eds., Viva! Women and Popular Protest in Latin America (London: Routledge, 1993).
109. See Jane S. Jaquette, ed., The Women's Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994); Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, N.H.: University of New England Press, 1991); Sarah A. Radcliffe and Sallie Westwood, eds., Viva! Women and Popular Protest in Latin America (London: Routledge, 1993).
110. See Jane S. Jaquette, ed., The Women's Movement in Latin America: Participation and Democracy (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994); Francesca Miller, Latin American Women and the Search for Social Justice (Hanover, N.H.: University of New England Press, 1991); Sarah A. Radcliffe and Sallie Westwood, eds., Viva! Women and Popular Protest in Latin America (London: Routledge, 1993).
111. Another set of ethnographic texts that meld symbolic and political economy approaches are those focusing on masculinity in Latin America and the Caribbean, such as Roger Lancaster's rich and sophisticated ethnography, Life Is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); and Matthew C. Gutmann, The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
112. Another set of ethnographic texts that meld symbolic and political economy approaches are those focusing on masculinity in Latin America and the Caribbean, such as Roger Lancaster's rich and sophisticated ethnography, Life Is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); and Matthew C. Gutmann, The Meanings of Macho: Being a Man in Mexico City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
113. Gluck and Patai.
114. Lila Abu-Lughod, "Writing against Culture," in Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present, ed. Richard G. Fox (Santa Fe: School of American Research Press, 1991), 137-62.
115. Daniel Miller, Modernity: An Ethnographic Approach: Dualism and Mass Consumption in Trinidad (Oxford: Berg, 1994).
116. There are other innovative ethnographers of these regions who are equally interested in working across symbolic/Marxist analyses. One of the best examples of these is Michael Taussig, Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
117. See Radcliffe and Westwood; and Marianne H. Marchand, "Latin American Women Speak on Development," for critiques of this formulation. For elaboration of "strategic" versus "practical" gender interests, see Maxine Molyneux, "Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua," Feminist Studies 11 (summer 1985): 227-54.
118. See Radcliffe and Westwood; and Marianne H. Marchand, "Latin American Women Speak on Development," for critiques of this formulation. For elaboration of "strategic" versus "practical" gender interests, see Maxine Molyneux, "Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua," Feminist Studies 11 (summer 1985): 227-54.
119. See Radcliffe and Westwood; and Marianne H. Marchand, "Latin American Women Speak on Development," for critiques of this formulation. For elaboration of "strategic" versus "practical" gender interests, see Maxine Molyneux, "Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua," Feminist Studies 11 (summer 1985): 227-54.
120. See Nancy Saporta Sternbach et al., "Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogota to San Bernardo," Signs 17 (winter 1992): 393-434, for a discussion of how this dissonance broke out at the Fourth Latin American and Caribbean Feminist Encuentro in 1987 at Taxco, Mexico. Stephen also provides an extended discussion of this event, from a slightly different perspective.
121. We should point out here that an enormous amount of feminist activity in Latin America and the Caribbean is carried out under the auspices of development work funded by international agencies interested in women's "empowerment." The division of women's "needs" into "practical" and "strategic" categories comes precisely from this field (see Molyneux) and is not an independent creation of feminists in these regions.
122. Claudia Salazar, "A Third World Woman's Text: Between the Politics of Criticism and Cultural Politics," in Women's Words, 289.
123. In fact, Mary Louise Pratt points out (p. 38) that anthropologists "customarily establish a relationship of exchange with the group based on Western commodities. That is how they survive and try to make their relations with informants nonexploitive." Actually, the exchange of "Western" goods is not always appropriate or desirable; for instance, for those anthropologists working in communities where "Western" goods are neither premium nor scarce, the exchange of services is the more likely option of the two proposed by Stephen.
124. See Ivan Karp, "Does Theory Travel? Area Studies and Cultural Studies," Africa Today 44, no. 3 (1997): 281-96. Also, see James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late-Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), for an interesting discussion of traveling cultures and traveling theory.
125. See Ivan Karp, "Does Theory Travel? Area Studies and Cultural Studies," Africa Today 44, no. 3 (1997): 281-96. Also, see James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late-Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997), for an interesting discussion of traveling cultures and traveling theory.
126. See also Moore, A Passion for Difference.
127. In the work we reviewed, although there is attention to the deconstruction of gender ideology, there is not a deconstruction of the category "woman," which is taken for granted at least in biological terms. Despite this fact, we found little of the "identification" of the sort that preoccupies Visweswaran and Behar (1993), and what we did find was more on the basis of shared race than "sex."
128. See Elisa J. Sobo, One Blood: The Jamaican Body (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993).
129. Barriteau-Foster, 7; Mohammed, 143. The notion of "sexual difference" signaled here by Mohammed is important to note. Although there is not the space to develop this discussion here, Latin American and Caribbean scholars in general work with the notion of sexual difference and "complementarity" of gender roles much more than do North American scholars.
130. Barriteau-Foster, 7; Mohammed, 143. The notion of "sexual difference" signaled here by Mohammed is important to note. Although there is not the space to develop this discussion here, Latin American and Caribbean scholars in general work with the notion of sexual difference and "complementarity" of gender roles much more than do North American scholars.
131. Acevedo, 66, 86.
132. Flora, 247.
133. Jean Franco, "The Church and the Gender Wars: An Update," LASA Forum-Newsletter of the Latin American Studies Association 27 (fall 1996): 8-10, notes the vehemence with which the Vatican opposed the use of the term "gender" at the 1995 Beijing Women's Conference precisely because it questions the "naturalness" of gender roles.
134. The slogan for the United Nations Decade for the Advancement of Women (1975-85) was "Equality, Development, and Peace" (Teresa Valdés and Enrique Gomariz, Mujeres Latinoamericanas en Cifras [Santiago, Chile: Facultad Latinoamericanas de Ciencias Sociales, 1993]). The "Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women" developed at the Nairobi conference in 1985 gave both governments and NGOs specific guidelines for ensuring that women would be adequately represented in all their development programs (Eva M. Rathgeber, "Gender and Development in Action," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 204-20). See Marchand and Parpart for an excellent discussion of changes in development thinking, from the "women in development" model of Boserup's generation, through "women and development" to the current "gender and development" model. See also Barriteau, "Postmodernist Feminist Theorizing and Development Policy and Practice in the Anglophone Caribbean," who points out that although the "gender and development" approach is better at diversity than previous approaches, it still lacks attention to racial diversity, specifically, and to the power of symbolic forms/cultural constructs.
135. The slogan for the United Nations Decade for the Advancement of Women (1975-85) was "Equality, Development, and Peace" (Teresa Valdés and Enrique Gomariz, Mujeres Latinoamericanas en Cifras [Santiago, Chile: Facultad Latinoamericanas de Ciencias Sociales, 1993]). The "Forward Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women" developed at the Nairobi conference in 1985 gave both governments and NGOs specific guidelines for ensuring that women would be adequately represented in all their development programs (Eva M. Rathgeber, "Gender and Development in Action," in Feminism/Postmodernism/Development, 204-20). See Marchand and Parpart for an excellent discussion of changes in development thinking, from the "women in development" model of Boserup's generation, through "women and development" to the current "gender and development" model. See also Barriteau, "Postmodernist Feminist Theorizing and Development Policy and Practice in the Anglophone Caribbean," who points out that although the "gender and development" approach is better at diversity than previous approaches, it still lacks attention to racial diversity, specifically, and to the power of symbolic forms/cultural constructs.
136. Marchand and Parpart.
137. Behar, Translated Woman; see also Mohanty.
138. Petchesky.
139. Roy D'Andrade, "Moral Models in Anthropology," Current Anthropology 36 (June 1995): 399-408.
140. Flora, 246.
141. Charles R. Hale, "Cultural Politics of Identity in Latin America," Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997): 580. See also Michael Kearney, Reconceptualizing the Peasantry: Anthropology in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996).
142. Charles R. Hale, "Cultural Politics of Identity in Latin America," Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997): 580. See also Michael Kearney, Reconceptualizing the Peasantry: Anthropology in Global Perspective (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996).
143. Rhoda Reddock, "Contestations over National Culture in Trinidad and Tobago: Considerations of Ethnicity, Class, and Gender," in Caribbean Portraits: Essays on Gender Ideologies and Identities, ed. Christine Barrow (Kingston: Ian Randle, 1998), 413-35; Mohammed.
144. Karp.
145. Appadurai, 356-57.