"The struggle of mankind against its deadliest foe": Themes of counter-subversion in anti-narcotic campaigns, 1920-1940

Journal of Social History

Volumn 34, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 590-610

  Speaker, Susan L ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039255497     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0031     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Richmond P. Hobson, "The Struggle of Mankind Against its Deadliest Foe" (Radio transcript), Narcotic Education, 1 (April 1928), pp. 51-54.
2. See for example Thomas Szasz, Ceremonial Chemistry Rev. ed., (Holmes Beach, Fla., 1985); Steven Wisotsky, Beyond the War on Drugs (Buffalo, N.Y., 1990), pp. 174-84; Craig Horowitz, "The No-Win War and its Discontents," New York 5 Feb. 1996; Joseph McNamara's commentary in "The War on Drugs is Lost," National Review 12 Feb. 1996; and The Drug Policy Letter, published quarterly by the Drug Policy Foundation, Washington, D.C. Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, eds., Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Berkeley, 1997).
3. See for example Thomas Szasz, Ceremonial Chemistry Rev. ed., (Holmes Beach, Fla., 1985); Steven Wisotsky, Beyond the War on Drugs (Buffalo, N.Y., 1990), pp. 174-84; Craig Horowitz, "The No-Win War and its Discontents," New York 5 Feb. 1996; Joseph McNamara's commentary in "The War on Drugs is Lost," National Review 12 Feb. 1996; and The Drug Policy Letter, published quarterly by the Drug Policy Foundation, Washington, D.C. Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, eds., Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Berkeley, 1997).
4. See for example Thomas Szasz, Ceremonial Chemistry Rev. ed., (Holmes Beach, Fla., 1985); Steven Wisotsky, Beyond the War on Drugs (Buffalo, N.Y., 1990), pp. 174-84; Craig Horowitz, "The No-Win War and its Discontents," New York 5 Feb. 1996; Joseph McNamara's commentary in "The War on Drugs is Lost," National Review 12 Feb. 1996; and The Drug Policy Letter, published quarterly by the Drug Policy Foundation, Washington, D.C. Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, eds., Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Berkeley, 1997).
5. See for example Thomas Szasz, Ceremonial Chemistry Rev. ed., (Holmes Beach, Fla., 1985); Steven Wisotsky, Beyond the War on Drugs (Buffalo, N.Y., 1990), pp. 174-84; Craig Horowitz, "The No-Win War and its Discontents," New York 5 Feb. 1996; Joseph McNamara's commentary in "The War on Drugs is Lost," National Review 12 Feb. 1996; and The Drug Policy Letter, published quarterly by the Drug Policy Foundation, Washington, D.C. Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, eds., Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Berkeley, 1997).
6. See for example Thomas Szasz, Ceremonial Chemistry Rev. ed., (Holmes Beach, Fla., 1985); Steven Wisotsky, Beyond the War on Drugs (Buffalo, N.Y., 1990), pp. 174-84; Craig Horowitz, "The No-Win War and its Discontents," New York 5 Feb. 1996; Joseph McNamara's commentary in "The War on Drugs is Lost," National Review 12 Feb. 1996; and The Drug Policy Letter, published quarterly by the Drug Policy Foundation, Washington, D.C. Harry G. Levine and Craig Reinarman, eds., Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Berkeley, 1997).
7. See for example, William Rosser Cobbe, Doctor Judas: a Portrayal of the Opium Habit (Chicago, 1895); John H. Hughes, "The Autobiography of a Drug Fiend," Medical Review of Reviews 22 (1916): 27-43; 105-120; 173-190; D.F. MacMartin, Thirty Years in Hell (Topeka, 1921).
8. See for example, William Rosser Cobbe, Doctor Judas: a Portrayal of the Opium Habit (Chicago, 1895); John H. Hughes, "The Autobiography of a Drug Fiend," Medical Review of Reviews 22 (1916): 27-43; 105-120; 173-190; D.F. MacMartin, Thirty Years in Hell (Topeka, 1921).
9. See for example, William Rosser Cobbe, Doctor Judas: a Portrayal of the Opium Habit (Chicago, 1895); John H. Hughes, "The Autobiography of a Drug Fiend," Medical Review of Reviews 22 (1916): 27-43; 105-120; 173-190; D.F. MacMartin, Thirty Years in Hell (Topeka, 1921).
10. David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control rev. ed. (New York, 1987) pp. 6-7; 43-44; H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History 1800-1980 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981) pp. 91-93.
11. David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control rev. ed. (New York, 1987) pp. 6-7; 43-44; H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History 1800-1980 (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981) pp. 91-93.
12. David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: Opiate Addiction in America Before 1940 (Cambridge, MA, 1982).
13. David Brion Davis, "Some Theme of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Miss. Valley Hist. Rev. 48 (1960): 205-224; "Some Ideological Functions of Prejudice in Ante-Bellum America," American Quarterly 15 (1963): 115-125; The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style (Baton Rouge, 1969.) Some of Davis's observations parallel and are informed by those made by Richard Hofstadter in The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York, 1965).
14. David Brion Davis, "Some Theme of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Miss. Valley Hist. Rev. 48 (1960): 205-224; "Some Ideological Functions of Prejudice in Ante-Bellum America," American Quarterly 15 (1963): 115-125; The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style (Baton Rouge, 1969.) Some of Davis's observations parallel and are informed by those made by Richard Hofstadter in The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York, 1965).
15. David Brion Davis, "Some Theme of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Miss. Valley Hist. Rev. 48 (1960): 205-224; "Some Ideological Functions of Prejudice in Ante-Bellum America," American Quarterly 15 (1963): 115-125; The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style (Baton Rouge, 1969.) Some of Davis's observations parallel and are informed by those made by Richard Hofstadter in The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York, 1965).
16. David Brion Davis, "Some Theme of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Miss. Valley Hist. Rev. 48 (1960): 205-224; "Some Ideological Functions of Prejudice in Ante-Bellum America," American Quarterly 15 (1963): 115-125; The Slave Power Conspiracy and the Paranoid Style (Baton Rouge, 1969.) Some of Davis's observations parallel and are informed by those made by Richard Hofstadter in The Paranoid Style in American Politics (New York, 1965).
17. Rupert Wilkinson, The Pursuit of American Character (New York, 1988), p. 2.
18. A note on drug terminology: Opiates include raw opium (the dried sticky sap of the opium poppy's seed pod), smoking opium (raw opium "cooked" over flame then smoked in pipes), laudanum and paregoric (opium dissolved in alcohol), morphine (the most powerful and plentiful of several active alkaloids occurring in raw opium; first extracted in 1805, used in hypodermic injections from the 1850s; codeine is another, less potent, naturally occurring alkaloid in raw opium) and heroin (diacetylmorphine-made from morphine, and c. five times as potent). The opiates' primary action is depressant, i.e., they lower heart rate and respiration, often inducing sleep; most are potent painkillers, and will also induce euphoria in many users. Cocaine, in contrast, is a stimulant drug derived from the leaves of the South American coca shrub. Marijuana (alternative spelling marihuana) cannot readily be classified as either stimulant or depressant; it has a wide range of psychological effects. All of these drugs were classed legally as "narcotics," although only the opiates are narcotic (sleep-inducing and pain relieving) in their pharmacologic effects. This often resulted in confusion and conflation of the various drugs in popular accounts. When reformers talked about "narcotics" they might be referring to opiates, cocaine, marijuana, or all of them.
19. Many states and localities, pressed by medical and pharmacy associations, had passed laws to limit or at least track drug purchases, but few had the means to effectively enforce these. See Musto, American Disease, pp. 91-120.
20. Cocaine was subject to the same restrictions, but marijuana was not included in the Harrison Act.
21. Musto, American Disease, pp. 121-32.
22. The classic history of drug regulation in the U.S. is Musto, The American Disease. The extent of opiate addiction during this period is carefully analyzed in Courtwright, Dark Paradise, pp. 9-34. Courtwright estimates no more than 250,000 addicts after 1920.
23. The classic history of drug regulation in the U.S. is Musto, The American Disease. The extent of opiate addiction during this period is carefully analyzed in Courtwright, Dark Paradise, pp. 9-34. Courtwright estimates no more than 250,000 addicts after 1920.
24. The best account of the Marihuana Tax Act and the role of civic groups in marijuana prohibition is Richard Bonnie and Charles Whitebread, The Marihuana Conviction: A History of Marihuana Prohibition in the United States (Charlottesville, 1974).
25. New York Times, 9 Nov. 1924, sec. 4, p. 4.
26. nd sess., 18 Feb. 1925, pp. 4088-4093. Hobson frequently recycled large portions of his anti-narcotic material; some of this was taken in turn from his earlier anti-alcohol speeches.
27. "Heroin Heroes," Sat. Eve. Post, 20 Sept. 1924, pp. 41-42.
28. Narcotic Education, July 1927, p. 4.
29. Narc. Educ., Jan. 1928, p. 35.
30. Nicholas & Lillian Kopeloff, "The Drug Evil," New Republic 34 (7 March 1923), pp. 41-43.
31. The Hague Convention of 1912 required signing nations to cooperate in international drug control, primarily by enacting domestic legislation to control all phases of the preparation of medicinal opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, and any new derivative that could be shown to have similar dangers. Forty-four governments had signed it, but less than half had ratified it by 1914. It was later included as one of the provisions of the Versailles Treaty after World War I.
32. "Drug Booster, New Criminal," NYT 27 Nov. 1921, VII, 16:1.
33. See Frederic Wallis, "The Menace of the Drug Addict," Current History 21 (Feb. 1925), 740; Mulhall, "The Increasing Drug Menace and its Serpentine Trail," Current Opinion 72 (May 1922): 602-603; Mulhall, Opium the Demon Flower (New York, 1926), pp. 207-214.
34. See Frederic Wallis, "The Menace of the Drug Addict," Current History 21 (Feb. 1925), 740; Mulhall, "The Increasing Drug Menace and its Serpentine Trail," Current Opinion 72 (May 1922): 602-603; Mulhall, Opium the Demon Flower (New York, 1926), pp. 207-214.
35. See Frederic Wallis, "The Menace of the Drug Addict," Current History 21 (Feb. 1925), 740; Mulhall, "The Increasing Drug Menace and its Serpentine Trail," Current Opinion 72 (May 1922): 602-603; Mulhall, Opium the Demon Flower (New York, 1926), pp. 207-214.
36. Frank Catinella, "The Narcotic Problem," NE, July 1929, p. 18.
37. See, for example, "Talon Hands of Avarice Etch Trail of Dope from Poppy Fields to America," San Francisco Examiner 24 Jan. 1923, 8:1; "Misery Market Pays Cash for New Addicts Snared," Ibid., 25 January 1923, 7:1.
38. See, for example, "Talon Hands of Avarice Etch Trail of Dope from Poppy Fields to America," San Francisco Examiner 24 Jan. 1923, 8:1; "Misery Market Pays Cash for New Addicts Snared," Ibid., 25 January 1923, 7:1.
39. Earle Rowell and Robert Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, the Weed of Madness (Mountain View Calif., 1939) pp. 72-73. The Rowells, father and son, published this, they said, after traveling the country for at least four years, talking with law enforcement officials, judges, and "victims." They used a lot of Anslinger's material, but added many of their own twists, including this one.
40. See selections in David Brion Davis, ed., The Fear of Conspiracy: Images of Un-American Subversion from the Revolution to the Present (Ithaca, N. Y., 1971).
41. Samuel Hopkins Adams, "The Cruel Tragedy of Dope," Collier's 23 Feb. 1924, p. 7.
42. Stephen Anderton, "Public Enlightenment and Uniform State Laws to End Narcotic Darkness," NE Oct. 1927, p. 23; "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," NE, July 1928, pp. 6-7. Sidney Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and Its Relation to Crime," NE, July 1927, p. 13.
43. Stephen Anderton, "Public Enlightenment and Uniform State Laws to End Narcotic Darkness," NE Oct. 1927, p. 23; "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," NE, July 1928, pp. 6-7. Sidney Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and Its Relation to Crime," NE, July 1927, p. 13.
44. Stephen Anderton, "Public Enlightenment and Uniform State Laws to End Narcotic Darkness," NE Oct. 1927, p. 23; "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," NE, July 1928, pp. 6-7. Sidney Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and Its Relation to Crime," NE, July 1927, p. 13.
45. Mulhall, Opium, pp. 7-8.
46. Davis, "Themes," p. 211.
47. See Cobbe and MacMartin (n. 2); also Courtwright, Dark Paradise; Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts who Survived (Knoxville, Term., 1989) and Mara Keire, "Dope Fiends and Degenerates: The Gendering of Addiction in the Early Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 31 (1998): 809-822.
48. See Cobbe and MacMartin (n. 2); also Courtwright, Dark Paradise; Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts who Survived (Knoxville, Term., 1989) and Mara Keire, "Dope Fiends and Degenerates: The Gendering of Addiction in the Early Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 31 (1998): 809-822.
49. See Cobbe and MacMartin (n. 2); also Courtwright, Dark Paradise; Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts who Survived (Knoxville, Term., 1989) and Mara Keire, "Dope Fiends and Degenerates: The Gendering of Addiction in the Early Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 31 (1998): 809-822.
50. See Cobbe and MacMartin (n. 2); also Courtwright, Dark Paradise; Courtwright, Herman Joseph, and Don Des Jarlais, Addicts who Survived (Knoxville, Term., 1989) and Mara Keire, "Dope Fiends and Degenerates: The Gendering of Addiction in the Early Twentieth Century," Journal of Social History 31 (1998): 809-822.
51. Ibid., p. 50.
52. "Opium Den Found on Enright's Ship," New York Times 19 Dec. 1923, 26:5
53. See especially Mulhall, "Increasing Drug Menace," and Opium pp. 32-36; Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090, and "Saving Youth From Heroin and Crime," Lit. Digest 24 May 1924, pp. 32-33. Though frequently written about, these rumors of juvenile addicts and peddlers were rarely substantiated during this period.
54. See especially Mulhall, "Increasing Drug Menace," and Opium pp. 32-36; Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090, and "Saving Youth From Heroin and Crime," Lit. Digest 24 May 1924, pp. 32-33. Though frequently written about, these rumors of juvenile addicts and peddlers were rarely substantiated during this period.
55. See especially Mulhall, "Increasing Drug Menace," and Opium pp. 32-36; Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090, and "Saving Youth From Heroin and Crime," Lit. Digest 24 May 1924, pp. 32-33. Though frequently written about, these rumors of juvenile addicts and peddlers were rarely substantiated during this period.
56. Hamilton Fish, Jr., "Additional Legislation to Curb International Traffic in Narcotics," NE July 1929, p. 6; Harry Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936. Anslinger Papers, Box 1, File 7; "Marihuana: Assassin of Youth," American Magazine, July 1937, p. 18.
57. Hamilton Fish, Jr., "Additional Legislation to Curb International Traffic in Narcotics," NE July 1929, p. 6; Harry Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936. Anslinger Papers, Box 1, File 7; "Marihuana: Assassin of Youth," American Magazine, July 1937, p. 18.
58. Hamilton Fish, Jr., "Additional Legislation to Curb International Traffic in Narcotics," NE July 1929, p. 6; Harry Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936. Anslinger Papers, Box 1, File 7; "Marihuana: Assassin of Youth," American Magazine, July 1937, p. 18.
59. Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-subversion," p. 208.
60. Hobson, "Peril of Narcotic Drugs," p. 4090; "The Drug Evil," New Republic 34 (7 Mar. 1923): 41; I.C. Hollinger, "The Opium or Morphine Disease," NE, Jan. 1928, p. 43.
61. Hobson, "Peril of Narcotic Drugs," p. 4090; "The Drug Evil," New Republic 34 (7 Mar. 1923): 41; I.C. Hollinger, "The Opium or Morphine Disease," NE, Jan. 1928, p. 43.
62. Hobson, "Peril of Narcotic Drugs," p. 4090; "The Drug Evil," New Republic 34 (7 Mar. 1923): 41; I.C. Hollinger, "The Opium or Morphine Disease," NE, Jan. 1928, p. 43.
63. Mulhall, Opium, p. 98.
64. Earle Albert Rowell and Robert Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, p. 29; 40-41; 49. Earlier accounts of marijuana asserted similar things; see "Marihuana Makes Fiends of Boys in 30 Days; Hasheesh Goads Users to Blood Lust," San Francisco Examiner 31 January 1923, 11: 1.
65. Earle Albert Rowell and Robert Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, p. 29; 40-41; 49. Earlier accounts of marijuana asserted similar things; see "Marihuana Makes Fiends of Boys in 30 Days; Hasheesh Goads Users to Blood Lust," San Francisco Examiner 31 January 1923, 11: 1.
66. Hobson, Radio address transcript, NE, January 1929, p. 68; Mulhall, Opium, pp. 56-63.
67. Hobson, Radio address transcript, NE, January 1929, p. 68; Mulhall, Opium, pp. 56-63.
68. Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090; Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and its Relation to Crime," NE July 1927, p. 11-12; "The National Menace of the Narcotic Traffic," Literary Digest 24 Feb. 1923, p. 35.
69. Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090; Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and its Relation to Crime," NE July 1927, p. 11-12; "The National Menace of the Narcotic Traffic," Literary Digest 24 Feb. 1923, p. 35.
70. Hobson, "Peril" p. 4090; Brewster, "The Actual Trend of Drug Addiction and its Relation to Crime," NE July 1927, p. 11-12; "The National Menace of the Narcotic Traffic," Literary Digest 24 Feb. 1923, p. 35.
71. See for example "[Deputy Police Commissioner] Simon Says Drugs Cause Crime Wave," 19 Dec. 1920, 2:6; "Drugs Make Crime [Police Commissioner] Enright Declares," 6 Apr. 1924, 17:1; "1,000 Seek Bandits in San Francisco-Depredations Throughout City Are Believed to be 'Killing Orgy' of Drug Addicts," 13 Oct. 1926, 1:2; "Federal Prisons Hold 2,270 Dope Inmates but only 820 Violators of Prohibition Law," 11 Dec. 1927, II, 2:4; "Commissioner Patterson Sees Drug Addiction as Main Cause of Crime," 3 Apr. 1920, 2:4.
72. See for example "[Deputy Police Commissioner] Simon Says Drugs Cause Crime Wave," 19 Dec. 1920, 2:6; "Drugs Make Crime [Police Commissioner] Enright Declares," 6 Apr. 1924, 17:1; "1,000 Seek Bandits in San Francisco-Depredations Throughout City Are Believed to be 'Killing Orgy' of Drug Addicts," 13 Oct. 1926, 1:2; "Federal Prisons Hold 2,270 Dope Inmates but only 820 Violators of Prohibition Law," 11 Dec. 1927, II, 2:4; "Commissioner Patterson Sees Drug Addiction as Main Cause of Crime," 3 Apr. 1920, 2:4.
73. See for example "[Deputy Police Commissioner] Simon Says Drugs Cause Crime Wave," 19 Dec. 1920, 2:6; "Drugs Make Crime [Police Commissioner] Enright Declares," 6 Apr. 1924, 17:1; "1,000 Seek Bandits in San Francisco-Depredations Throughout City Are Believed to be 'Killing Orgy' of Drug Addicts," 13 Oct. 1926, 1:2; "Federal Prisons Hold 2,270 Dope Inmates but only 820 Violators of Prohibition Law," 11 Dec. 1927, II, 2:4; "Commissioner Patterson Sees Drug Addiction as Main Cause of Crime," 3 Apr. 1920, 2:4.
74. See for example "[Deputy Police Commissioner] Simon Says Drugs Cause Crime Wave," 19 Dec. 1920, 2:6; "Drugs Make Crime [Police Commissioner] Enright Declares," 6 Apr. 1924, 17:1; "1,000 Seek Bandits in San Francisco-Depredations Throughout City Are Believed to be 'Killing Orgy' of Drug Addicts," 13 Oct. 1926, 1:2; "Federal Prisons Hold 2,270 Dope Inmates but only 820 Violators of Prohibition Law," 11 Dec. 1927, II, 2:4; "Commissioner Patterson Sees Drug Addiction as Main Cause of Crime," 3 Apr. 1920, 2:4.
75. See for example "[Deputy Police Commissioner] Simon Says Drugs Cause Crime Wave," 19 Dec. 1920, 2:6; "Drugs Make Crime [Police Commissioner] Enright Declares," 6 Apr. 1924, 17:1; "1,000 Seek Bandits in San Francisco-Depredations Throughout City Are Believed to be 'Killing Orgy' of Drug Addicts," 13 Oct. 1926, 1:2; "Federal Prisons Hold 2,270 Dope Inmates but only 820 Violators of Prohibition Law," 11 Dec. 1927, II, 2:4; "Commissioner Patterson Sees Drug Addiction as Main Cause of Crime," 3 Apr. 1920, 2:4.
76. Harry Anslinger and Courtney Ryley Cooper, "Marijuana: Assassin of Youth," American Magazine, July 1937, 18-19; 151-153.
77. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
78. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
79. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
80. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
81. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
82. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
83. Rowells, On the Trail of Marihuana; "Marihuana," J. Home Economics 30 (Sept. 1938): 477-79; "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, pp. 812-13; Maud Marshall, "Marihuana," American Scholar 8 (1939): 95-101; "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; "Marihuana More Dangerous than Heroin or Cocaine," Scientific American, May 1938, p. 293. Also see Wayne Gard, "Youth Gone Loco," Christian Century, 29 June 1938, p. 812.
84. Hobson, Broadcast transcript, NE Jan. 1929, p. 67; Anslinger, "Marihuana: Assassin of Youth," p. 150.
85. Hobson, Broadcast transcript, NE Jan. 1929, p. 67; Anslinger, "Marihuana: Assassin of Youth," p. 150.
86. Withdrawal is in fact rarely fatal, unless the patient's system is run down by malnutrition and chronic disease. It is extremely unpleasant, however, and has many of the symptoms of severe influenza: chills, sweats, tremors, painful gastrointestinal cramping, nausea and vomiting, muscle and joint pain, etc. The flu-like phase can last for four to five days.
87. Bishop was a New York physician well-known for advocating a medical maintenance approach to addiction even after enforcement approaches had become the norm. He also supported the briefly popular antibody/antitoxin theory of addiction.
88. Adams, "Cruel Tragedy of Dope," p. 8; Hobson, "Peril of Narcotic Drugs," p. 4090.
89. Adams, "Cruel Tragedy of Dope," p. 8; Hobson, "Peril of Narcotic Drugs," p. 4090.
90. Hobson, "Heroin Heroes," p. 42; Mulhall, "China's Curse, the World's Warning," NE July 1927, pp. 7-8.
91. Hobson, "Heroin Heroes," p. 42; Mulhall, "China's Curse, the World's Warning," NE July 1927, pp. 7-8.
92. Hobson, NE Jan. 1928, p. 37; Stephen Anderton, "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," (Broadcast transcript) NE July 1928, p. 6; Clarence Owens, "The WCNE and its Leadership in the War on Narcotic Drug Addiction," NE July 1927, p. 9.
93. Hobson, NE Jan. 1928, p. 37; Stephen Anderton, "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," (Broadcast transcript) NE July 1928, p. 6; Clarence Owens, "The WCNE and its Leadership in the War on Narcotic Drug Addiction," NE July 1927, p. 9.
94. Hobson, NE Jan. 1928, p. 37; Stephen Anderton, "Public Agitation and the Force of Law to Annihilate the Narcotic Menace," (Broadcast transcript) NE July 1928, p. 6; Clarence Owens, "The WCNE and its Leadership in the War on Narcotic Drug Addiction," NE July 1927, p. 9.
95. Hobson, "The Modern Pirates-Exterminate Them!" NE Aug. 1931, p. 5
96. "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936; Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, p. 79; 89.
97. "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936; Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, p. 79; 89.
98. "One More Peril for Youth," Forum, Jan. 1939, pp. 1-2; Anslinger, "The Need for Narcotic Education," transcript of NBC radio address, 24 Feb. 1936; Rowell, On the Trail of Marihuana, p. 79; 89.
99. See, for example, the statements collected in Charles Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem (New York, 1928).
100. "Demons for the Twentieth Century: the Rhetoric of Drug Reform, 1920-1940," in Caroline Acker and Sarah Tracy, eds., Altering American Consciousness: Essays on the History of Alcohol and Drug Use in the U.S., 1800-1997 (forthcoming, University of Massachusetts Press.)
101. William Leuchtenberg, The Perils of Prosperity (Chicago, 1958); Lynn Dumenil, The Modem Temper (New York, 1995); also see David Bennett, The Party of Fear (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988).
102. William Leuchtenberg, The Perils of Prosperity (Chicago, 1958); Lynn Dumenil, The Modem Temper (New York, 1995); also see David Bennett, The Party of Fear (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988).
103. William Leuchtenberg, The Perils of Prosperity (Chicago, 1958); Lynn Dumenil, The Modem Temper (New York, 1995); also see David Bennett, The Party of Fear (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988).
104. Musto, American Disease; Douglas Clark Kinder, "Shutting Out the Evil: Nativism and Narcotics Control in the United States," J. Policy History 3 (1991): 468-493.
105. Musto, American Disease; Douglas Clark Kinder, "Shutting Out the Evil: Nativism and Narcotics Control in the United States," J. Policy History 3 (1991): 468-493.
106. Some also may have been refugees from the pre-war anti-cigarette campaign, which was badly damaged by the widespread association of cigarettes, soldiers, and patriotism during WWI. See Cassandra Tate, Cigarette Wars: The Triumph of the "Little White Slaver" (New York, 1999); Musto, American Disease, and H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981).
107. also may have been refugees from the pre-war anti-cigarette campaign, which was badly damaged by the widespread association of cigarettes, soldiers, and patriotism during WWI. See Cassandra Tate, Cigarette Wars: The Triumph of the "Little White Slaver" (New York, 1999); Musto, American Disease, and H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History (Syracuse, N.Y., 1981).
108. Sacvan Bercovitch has made a convincing argument that this ideology (as expressed in Puritan jeremiads) became part of republican rhetoric during the eighteenth century, so that its influence extended far beyond New England's elites; see Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI, 1978); Robert Abzug, looking at the cosmology of antebellum reformers, also shows how religious ideology and sense of mission was incorporated into broader secular reform efforts. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994).
109. Sacvan Bercovitch has made a convincing argument that this ideology (as expressed in Puritan jeremiads) became part of republican rhetoric during the eighteenth century, so that its influence extended far beyond New England's elites; see Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI, 1978); Robert Abzug, looking at the cosmology of antebellum reformers, also shows how religious ideology and sense of mission was incorporated into broader secular reform efforts. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994).
110. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Anti-modernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880-1920 (New York, 1981); Karen Haltunnen, Confidence Men and Painted Women (New Haven, 1982).
111. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Anti-modernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880-1920 (New York, 1981); Karen Haltunnen, Confidence Men and Painted Women (New Haven, 1982).
112. See Harry G. Levine, "The Discovery of Addiction: Changing Conceptions of Habitual Drunkenness in America," J. Studies on Alcohol 39 (1978): 143-174.