Democracy and economic growth: A causal analysis

Comparative Politics

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 463-473

  Heo, Uk ^a   Tan, Alexander C ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0039178037     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422444     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. See Philips Cutright, "National Political Development: Measurement and Analysis," American Sociological Review, 28 (1963), 253-64; Deane E. Neubauer, "Some Conditions of Democracy," American Political Science Review, 61 (1967), 1002-9.
2. See Philips Cutright, "National Political Development: Measurement and Analysis," American Sociological Review, 28 (1963), 253-64; Deane E. Neubauer, "Some Conditions of Democracy," American Political Science Review, 61 (1967), 1002-9.
3. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
4. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
5. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
6. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
7. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
8. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
9. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
10. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
11. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
12. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
13. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
14. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
15. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
16. Kenneth A. Bollen, "Political Democracy and the Timing of Development," American Sociological Review, 44 (1979), 572-87; John F. O. Bilson, "Civil Liberty: An Econometric Investigation," Kyklos, 35 (1982), 94-114; Kenneth A. Bollen and Robert A. Jackman, "Political Democracy and the Size Distribution of Income," American Sociological Review, 48 (1985), 468-79; Kenneth A. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy: Validity and Method Factors in Cross-National Measures," American Journal of Political Science, 37 (1993), 1207-30; Larry Sirowy and Alex Inkeles, "The Effects of Democracy on Economic Growth and Inequality: A Review," Studies in Comparative International Development, 25 (1990), 126-57; John F. Helliwell, "Empirical Linkages between Democracy and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 24 (1994), 225-48; Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, "Political Regimes and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 7 (1993), 51-69; Mancur Olson, "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development," American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 567-76; Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, "Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis," American Political Science Review, 88 (1994), 903-10; John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Does High Income Promote Democracy?," World Politics, 49 (1994), 1-30; David Leblang, "Property Rights, Democracy and Economic Growth," Political Research Quarterly, 49 (1996), 5-26; David Leblang, "Political Democracy and Economic Growth: Pooled Cross-Sectional and Time-Series Evidence," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 453-72; Yi Feng, "Democracy, Political Stability and Economic Growth," British Journal of Political Science, 27 (1997), 391-418.
17. Seymour M. Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy," American Political Science Review, 53 (1959), 69-105; Martin Needler, "Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: The Case of Latin America," American Political Science Review, 62 (1967), 889-97.
18. Seymour M. Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy," American Political Science Review, 53 (1959), 69-105; Martin Needler, "Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: The Case of Latin America," American Political Science Review, 62 (1967), 889-97.
19. Olson, "Dictatorship"; Mancur Olson, Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Przeworski and Limongi; Leblang, "Property Rights"; Lebang, "Political Democracy."
20. Olson, "Dictatorship"; Mancur Olson, Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Przeworski and Limongi; Leblang, "Property Rights"; Lebang, "Political Democracy."
21. Olson, "Dictatorship"; Mancur Olson, Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Przeworski and Limongi; Leblang, "Property Rights"; Lebang, "Political Democracy."
22. Olson, "Dictatorship"; Mancur Olson, Rise and Decline of Nations (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Przeworski and Limongi; Leblang, "Property Rights"; Lebang, "Political Democracy."
23. Zehra Arat, "Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited," Comparative Politics, 21 (October 1988), 21-36; Tatu Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization: A Comparative Study of 147 States, 1980-88 (New York: Crane Russak, 1990); Olson, "Dictatorship," p. 572.
24. Zehra Arat, "Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited," Comparative Politics, 21 (October 1988), 21-36; Tatu Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization: A Comparative Study of 147 States, 1980-88 (New York: Crane Russak, 1990); Olson, "Dictatorship," p. 572.
25. Zehra Arat, "Democracy and Economic Development: Modernization Theory Revisited," Comparative Politics, 21 (October 1988), 21-36; Tatu Vanhanen, The Process of Democratization: A Comparative Study of 147 States, 1980-88 (New York: Crane Russak, 1990); Olson, "Dictatorship," p. 572.
26. W. S. Jung and Peter J. Marshall, "Exports, Growth and Causality in Developing Countries," Journal of Development Economics, 18 (1985), 1-12.
27. Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy."
28. Bilson.
29. Bilson, p. 106.
30. Karen Pennar, Geri Smith, Rose Brady, Dave Lindorff, and John Rossant, "Is Democracy Bad for Growth?" Business Week, June 7, 1993.
31. Ibid., p. 84.
32. Burkhart and Lewis-Beck; Feng; Londregan and Pool.
33. Burkhart and Lewis-Beck.
34. Olson, Rise and Decline of Nations.
35. Olson, "Dictatorship."
36. Ibid., p. 573.
37. Ibid., p. 572.
38. Sirowy and Inkeles; Feng; Leblang, "Private Rights."
39. Leblang, "Property Rights."
40. In a review of empirical studies investigating the relationship between democracy and economic growth, Przeworski and Limongi found inconclusive evidence to support the hypothesis that democracies grow faster than nondemocracies.
41. Leblang, "Property Rights."
42. Zehra Arat, Democracy and Human Rights (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1991). One concern that has been raised is whether these various democracy data sets are tapping the same concept. Bollen, "Liberal Democracy," pointed out that some data sets are laden with measurement error that may have an impact on overall findings and conclusions. Burkhart and Lewis-Beck employed Gastil's data set because, according to them, it has been found to have the fewest measurement errors. To check whether we are tapping into the same phenomenon and to see how Arat's new data set is correlated with others, we ran a simple Pearson correlation on Gastil's scores and Arat's scores on 146 countries for 1980. We found that the two data sets are highly correlated (-0.80, significant at the 0.001 level). The negative correlation is expected because Gastil's scores range from 1 for democracy to 7 for nondemocracies, while Arat's high scores reflect a higher level of "democraticness." Arat, Democracy and Human Rights, p. 28, also provided correlation scores for her democracy scores and existing democracy indices. For example, the correlation between Bollen's 1960 and 1965 scores with Arat's scores is 0.90 (n=106) and 0.90 (n=104), respectively.
43. The countries that cover a different time period due to the lack of data availability are Argentina (1949-82), Brazil (1958-80), Burma (1953-82), Chile (1955-82), Egypt (1955-82), El Salvador (1951-82), India (1955-82), Indonesia (1960-82), Iran (1959-82), Israel (1953-82), Korea (1953-82), Pakistan (1955-82), Panama (1959-82), The Philippines (1951-82), Thailand (1952-82), Uruguay (1955-82).
44. The level of democracy is calculated according to the following equation: Score of democraticness = [(Participation × (1 + Inclusiveness) + Competitiveness] - Coercieness.
45. Somnath Sen, "Military Expenditure Data for Developing Countries: Methods and Measurement," in Geoffrey Lamb, ed., Military Expenditure and Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Discussion Papers, 1995).
46. Consumer price index was used to convert current values to constant values for Brazil, Egypt, India, Peru, and Thailand.
47. Robert Pindyck and Daniel Rubinfeld, Econometric Models and Economic Forecasts (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991), p. 216.
48. John R. Freeman, "Granger Causality and the Time Series Analysis of Political Relationship," American Journal of Political Science, 27 (1983), 337-58; C. W. J. Granger, "Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods," Econometrica, 37 (1969), 424-38; Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Econometrics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), p. 68.
49. John R. Freeman, "Granger Causality and the Time Series Analysis of Political Relationship," American Journal of Political Science, 27 (1983), 337-58; C. W. J. Granger, "Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods," Econometrica, 37 (1969), 424-38; Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Econometrics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), p. 68.
50. John R. Freeman, "Granger Causality and the Time Series Analysis of Political Relationship," American Journal of Political Science, 27 (1983), 337-58; C. W. J. Granger, "Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods," Econometrica, 37 (1969), 424-38; Peter Kennedy, A Guide to Econometrics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991), p. 68.
51. The concept of causality used by the Granger causality test is empirical rather than theoretical. It requires two conditions for X to cause Y: changes in X must precede changes in Y, and X must help predict Y. Since this concept is slightly different from what we usually mean by causality, we use the term "Granger cause." For detailed information, see Freeman.
52. Ibid., p. 346.
53. Gideon Schwartz, "Estimating the Dimension of a Model," Annals of Statistics, 6 (1978), 461-1; John Geweke and Richard Meese, "Estimating Regression Models of Finite but Unknown Order," International Economic Review, 22 (1981), 55-70.
54. Gideon Schwartz, "Estimating the Dimension of a Model," Annals of Statistics, 6 (1978), 461-1; John Geweke and Richard Meese, "Estimating Regression Models of Finite but Unknown Order," International Economic Review, 22 (1981), 55-70.
55. Arat, Democracy and Human Rights.
56. Lev S. Gonick and Robert M. Rosh, "The Structural Determinants of the World Economy on National Political Development," Comparative Political Studies, 21 (1988), 171-99.
57. Burkhart and Lewis-Beck