Plural cultures, contested territories: A critique of Kymlicka

Canadian Journal of Political Science

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 211-234

  Walker, Brian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039165825     PISSN: 00084239     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0008423900015419     Document Type: Article

References (39)

1. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
2. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
3. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
4. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
5. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
6. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
7. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
8. Will Kymlicka, "Individual and Community Rights," in Judith Baker, ed., Group Rights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994); Will Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989); Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995); Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz, "National Self-Determination," The Journal of Philosophy 87 (1990), 439-61; Avishai Margalit and Moshe Halbertal, "Liberalism and the Right to Culture," Social Research 61 (1994), 491-510; Vernon van Dyke, "Justice as Fairness: For Groups?" American Political Science Review 69 (1975), 607-14; Michel Seymour, "Anti-individualisme, droits collectifs et États multinationaux," Le défi du pluralisme; Lekton 4 (1994) 41-80; and Denise Réaume "Individuals, Groups, and Rights to Public Goods," University of Toronto Law Journal 38 (1988), 1-27.
9. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture, 164-66.
10. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 83. The examples which Kymlicka gives of societal cultures are exclusively ethnic groups - Puerto Ricans, Aboriginal peoples, the Québécois and so on. He does not, as Margalit and Raz do, allow for the idea that various social classes and religious groups might also represent societal cultures (Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination").
11. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 83. The examples which Kymlicka gives of societal cultures are exclusively ethnic groups - Puerto Ricans, Aboriginal peoples, the Québécois and so on. He does not, as Margalit and Raz do, allow for the idea that various social classes and religious groups might also represent societal cultures (Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination").
12. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 79.
13. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community and Culture, 138, 145-57.
14. See Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, trans. by Mark Ritter (London: Sage Publications, 1992), and Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
15. See Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, trans. by Mark Ritter (London: Sage Publications, 1992), and Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
16. See Peter F. Drucker, "The Age of Social Transformation," The Atlantic Monthly, November 1994, 54-55.
17. An excellent meditation on urbanization as assimilation is Glenn Gould's 1968 CBC radio documentary, "The Latecomers."
18. As Logan and Molotch point out in their book, Urban Fortunes, neighbourhoods supply informal support networks which "provide life-sustaining products and services ... neighbors and acquaintances who offer aid that can alter a way of life, such as referrals for an available job, a political connection to solve a problem, a welfare benefit, a lucrative criminal contact" (John R. Logan and Harvey L. Molotch, Urban Fortunes; The Political Economy of Place [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987], 104).
19. I am following David Harvey in Social Justice and the City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973).
20. Logan and Molotch, Urban Fortunes.
21. See William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
22. Ibid., 138.
23. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 89 (quoting Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination").
24. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship, 89 (quoting Margalit and Raz, "National Self-Determination").
25. Ibid., 83-84.
26. Most, but not all. Some Aboriginal peoples who live in rural isolation may well exist as "encompassing groups" of the sort which Kymlicka talks about, and his argument would be proportionately stronger for such peoples. But the communities which could legitimately make the claim to be encompassing groups form a small subset of the groups whose claims Kymlicka's account is meant to justify. I deal with the unconvincing nature of holistic views of cultural belonging in much greater (and, I hope, more adequate) detail in Brian Walker, "Rawls, Bakhtin and the Praxis of Toleration," Political Theory 23 (1995), 101-27.
27. See, for example, Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), as well as Alex Inkeles, "Understanding and Misunderstanding Individual Modernity," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 8 (1977), 135-76.
28. See, for example, Alex Inkeles and David H. Smith, Becoming Modern (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974), as well as Alex Inkeles, "Understanding and Misunderstanding Individual Modernity," Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 8 (1977), 135-76.
29. My point here is somewhat different from that made by Waldron (see Jeremy Waldron, "Minority Cultures and the Cosmopolitan Alternative," in Will Kymlicka, ed., The Rights of Minority Cultures [New York: Oxford University Press, 1995], 93-119). Kymlicka answered Waldron's suggestion that many North Americans participate in highly cosmopolitan lifestyles (eating Chinese food, reading Grimms' fairy tales to their children) by underlining that such cosmopolitanism is primarily a lifestyle of the anglophone society of North America, and that for most peoples movement between cultures is highly painful. My argument is different. I am suggesting that many of the backgrounds from which cultural minorities come have already been rendered cosmopolitan, in the sense that their everyday life is pursued through institutions which they share with many other national groups and many other cultures. That is to say, the institutional life they lead cannot be shown to have marked differences from that of the peoples who surround them. This is based on the assumption that if one is going to make claims about a group being culturally distinct one has to be able to flesh this out by showing that the actual institutions in which people participate are in some meaningful way differentiated from those of other groups. (This issue is somewhat complicated when we come to Kymlicka's theory because of a distinction he draws between cultural structure and cultural context. On this distinction see note 19.) My argument here is that this institutional differentiation cannot be shown for the case of modern Quebec. Quebec is already, in this sense, a cosmopolitan society. Among Québécois, everyday life and its assumptions and the values of the people are only minimally different from that of other peoples around. Quebec is also, incidentally, cosmopolitan in Waldron's sense as well. Anybody who has ever lived in Montreal or Quebec City knows that Quebeckers are just as likely as members of the anglophone mainstream to go out for Chinese food or pizza or to read their children to sleep with foreign fairy tales.
30. The concept "encompassing group" is appropriate for certain groups which, due to some form of isolation, have managed either to remain separate or to create a
31. Will Kymlicka, "Misunderstanding Nationalism,"Dissent 42 (1995), 130-37, at 131.
32. Marc V. Levine, "Language Policy, Education and Cultural Survival: Bill 101 and the Transformation of Anglophone Montreal, 1977-1985," Quebec Studies 4 (1986), 3-28.
33. The first three groups, at least, form "national minorities," to use Kymlicka's term, and the specific culture of the island of Montreal has grown up out of their meeting.
34. I look at such cases in Brian Walker, "Le libéralisme politique et le refus de l'assimilation," Lekton: Le défi du pluralisme 4 (1994), 9-40.
35. Even here there is a large degree of choice as to how much a minority group will lose. Some states adopt an official language but permit visibility and social presence to other languages. Other states actively attempt to discourage public displays of all but the official language. Policies such as the latter are by no means required by the need to have a healthy public language, so even given the need to choose one or two official languages there is often space for the development of greater cultural fairness.
36. Oscar Lewis, "The Culture of Poverty," in Louis A. Ferman, Joyce L. Kornbluh and Alan Haber, eds., Poverty in America: A Book of Readings (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969), 405-15, at 411.
37. Ibid., 409.
38. Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1962).
39. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged, 138.