Communication apprehension as temperamental expression: A communibiological paradigm

Communication Monographs

Volumn 65, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 197-219

  Beatty, Michael J ^a   McCroskey, James C ^b   Heisel, Alan D ^b  

^a CLEVELAND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Communibiology; Communication apprehension; Personality; Temperament; Traits

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039165783     PISSN: 03637751     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03637759809376448     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Aggleton, J.P., & Mishkin, M. (1986). The amygdala: Sensory gateway to the emotions. In E. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 3 Biological foundations of emotion (pp. 281-299). San Diego, CA; Academic Press.
2. Allen, M., Hunter, J.E., & Donohue, W.A. (1989). Meta-analysis of self-report data on the effectiveness of public speaking anxiety treatment techniques. Communication Education, 38, 54-76.
3. Ayres, J. (1988a). Antecedents of communication apprehension: A reaffirmation. Communication Research Reports, 5, 76-83.
4. Ayres, J. (1988b). Coping with speech anxiety: The power of positive thinking. Communication Education, 37, 287-296.
5. Ayres, J. (1990). Situational factors and audience anxiety. Communication Education, 39, 283-291.
6. Ball, S.A., & Zuckerman, M. (1992). Sensation seeking and selective attention: Focused and divided attention on a dichotic listening task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 825-831.
7. Bates, J.E. (1987). Temperament in infancy. In J.D. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed., pp. 1101-1149). New York: Wiley.
8. Bates, J.E. (1989). Concepts and measures of temperament. In G.A. Kohnstamm, J.E. Bates, & M.K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 3-26). New York: Wiley.
9. Bates, J.E., & Wachs, T.D. (Eds.). (1994). Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
10. Beatty, M.J. (1987). Communication apprehension as a determinant of avoidance, withdrawal, and performance anxiety. Communication Quarterly, 35, 202-217.
11. Beatty, M.J. (1988a). Impact of ambiguity reduction about performance expectations on audience anxiety. Communication Education, 37, 208-213.
12. Beatty, M.J. (1988b). Public speaking apprehension, decision-making errors in the selection of speech introduction strategies, and adherence to strategy. Communication Education, 37, 297-311.
13. Beatty, M.J. (1988c). Situational and predispositional correlates of public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 37, 202-217.
14. Beatty, M.J. (in press). Future directions in communication trait theory and research. In J.C. McCroskey, J.A. Daly, M. Martin, & M.J. Beatty (Eds.), Personality and communication: Trait perspectives. New York: Hampton Press.
15. Beatty, M.J., & Andriate, G.S. (1985). Communication apprehension and general anxiety in the prediction of public speaking anxiety. Communication Quarterly, 33, 174-184.
16. Beatty, M.J., Balfantz, G.L., & Kuwabara, A.Y. (1989). Trait-like qualities of selected variables assumed to be transient causes of performance state anxiety. Communication Education, 38, 277-289.
17. Beatty, M.J., & Behnke, R.R. (1980). An assimilation theory perspective on communication apprehension. Human Communication Research, 6, 319-325.
18. Beatty, M.J., & Behnke, R.R. (1991). Effects of public speaking trait anxiety and intensity of speaking task on heart rates during performance. Human Communication Research, 18, 147-176.
19. Beatty, M.J., Behnke, R.R., & McCallum, K. (1978). Situational determinants of communication apprehension. Communication Monographs, 45, 186-191.
20. Beatty, M.J., Dobos, J.A., Balfantz, G.L., & Kuwabara, A.Y. (1991). Communication apprehension, state anxiety, and behavioral disruption: A causal analysis. Communication Quarterly, 39, 48-51.
21. Beatty, M.J., Forst, E.C., & Stewart, R.A. (1986). Communication apprehension and motivation as predictors of public speaking duration. Communication Education, 35, 143-146.
22. Beatty, M.J., & Friedland, M.H. (1990). Public speaking state anxiety as a function selected situational and predispositional variables. Communication Education, 39, 142-147.
23. Beatty, M.J., & McCroskey, J.C. (in press). Interpersonal communication as temperamental expression. In J.C. McCroskey, J.A. Daly, M. Martin, & M.J. Beatty (Eds.), Personality and communication: Trait perspectives. New York: Hampton Press.
24. Beatty, M.J., Plax, T.G., & Kearney, P. (1985). Reinforcement versus modeling in the development of communication apprehension. Communication Research Reports, 2, 80-85.
25. Behnke, R.R., & Beatty, M.J. (1981). A cognitive-physiological model of speech anxiety. Communication Monographs, 48, 158-163.
26. Behnke, R.R., Beatty, M.J., & Dabbs, J.M., Jr. (1982). Brain temperature and communication apprehension. MENSA Research Journal, 13, 17-20.
27. Beidel, D.C., Turner, S.M., & Dancu, C.V. (1985). Physiological, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of social anxiety. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 23, 101-117.
28. Booth-Butterfield, M., & Booth-Butterfield, S. (1986). Effects of evaluation, task structure, trait-CA, and reticence on state-CA and behavioral disruption in dyadic settings. Communication Monographs, 53, 144-159.
29. Booth-Butterfield, S. (1987). Action assembly theory and communication apprehension: A psychophysiological study. Human Communication Research, 13, 386-398.
30. Booth-Butterfield, S. (1988a). Inhibition and student recall of instructional messages. Communication Education, 37, 312-324.
31. Booth-Butterfield, S. (1988b). Instructional interventions for reducing situational anxiety and avoidance. Communication Education, 37, 214-223.
32. Bouchard, T.J. (1993). Genetic and environmental influence on adult personality: Evaluating the evidence. In J. Hettema & I.J. Deary (Eds.). Foundations of personality (pp. 15-44). Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic.
33. Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5, 73-99.
34. Burgoon, J.K. (1976). The unwillingness-to-communicate scale: Development and validation. Communication Monographs, 43, 60-69.
35. Buss, A.H. (1989). Temperament as personality traits. In G.A. Kohnstamm, J.E. Bates, & M.K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 49-58). New York: Wiley.
36. Buss, A.H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality. New York: Wiley.
37. Buss, A.H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
38. Calkins, S.D., & Fox, N.A. (1992). The relation among infant temperament, attachment, and behavioral inhibition at 24 months. Child Development, 63, 1456-1472.
39. Campbell, D.T., & Stanley, J.C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching. In N.L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching(pp. 171-146). Chicago: Rand McNally.
40. Cappella, J.N. (1991). The biological origins of automated patterns of human interaction. Communication Theory, 1, 4-35.
41. Cappella, J.N. (1993). The facial feedback hypothesis in human interaction: Review and speculation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 12, 3-13.
42. Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1989). Temperament and its functional significance. In S.I. Greenspan & G.H. Pollack (Eds.), The course of life: Early childhood (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 163-228). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
43. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. Daly, J.A. (1978a). Communication apprehension and behavior: Applying a multiple act criteria. Human Communication Research, 4, 208-216.
45. Daly, J.A. (1978b). The assessment of social-communicative anxiety via self-reports: A comparison of measures. Communication Monographs, 45, 204-218.
46. Daly, J.A., & Friedrich, G. (1981). The development of communication apprehension: A retrospective analysis of contributory correlates. Communication Quarterly, 29, 243-255.
47. Daly, J.A., & McCroskey, J.C. (1975). Occupational desirability and choice as a function of communication apprehension. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 22, 309-313.
48. Daly, J.A., & McCroskey, J.C. (Eds.). (1984). Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
49. Daly, J.A., Vangelisti, A., Neel, H.L., & Cavanaugh, P.D. (1989). Pre-performance concerns associated with public speaking anxiety. Communication Quarterly, 37, 39-53.
50. Davidson, R.J., Ekman, P., Saron, C.D., Senulis J., & Friesen, W. (1990). Approach/withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology I. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 330-334.
51. Davis, M. (1992). The role of the amygdala in fear and anxiety. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 15, 353-375.
52. Depue, R.A., & Achene, W.G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 457-492.
53. Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M.K. (1988). Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 958-966.
54. Diamond, S. (1957). Personality and temperament. New York: Harper.
55. Eaton, W.O. (1983). Measuring activity level with actometers: Reliability, validity, and arm length. Child Development, 54, 720-726.
56. Eaves, L., & Eysenck, H.J. (1986). The genetics of personality. New York: Academic Press.
57. Eysenck, H.J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
58. Eysenck, H.J. (1986). Can personality study ever be scientific? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 1, 3-20.
59. Eysenck, H.J. (1991). Biological dimensions of personality. In L.A. Pervin (Ed.), Handbook of personality (pp. 244-276). New York: Guilford.
60. Eysenck, H.J., & Eysenck, M.W. (1985). Personality and individual differences: A natural science approach. New York: Plenum.
61. Farb, C., Aoki, C., Milner, T., Kaneko, T., & LeDoux, J. (1992). Glutamate immunoreactive terminals in the lateral amygdaloid nucleus: A possible substrate for emotional memory. Brain Research, 593, 145-158.
62. Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R.S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.
63. Fowles, D.C. (1980). The three arousal model: Implications of Gray's two-factor learning theory for heart rate, electrodermal activity, and psychopathy. Psychophysiology, 17, 87-104.
64. Fox, N.A. (1989). Psychophysiological correlates of emotional reactivity during the first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 25, 364-372.
65. Fox, N.A. (1991). If it's not left, it's right: Electroencephalogram asymmetry and the development of emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 863-872.
66. Fox, N.A., Bell, M.A., & Jones, N.A. (1992). Individual differences in response to stress and the development of emotion. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 161-184.
67. Gray, J.A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.
68. Gray, J.A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493-509.
69. Gray, J.A. (1990). Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 269-288.
70. Gray, J.A. (1991). The neuropsychology of temperament. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.), Explorations in temperament (pp. 105-128). New York: Plenum.
71. Grillon, C., Ameii, R., Woods, S.W., Merikangas, K., & Davis, M. (1991). Fear-potentiated startle in humans: Effects of anticipatory anxiety on the acoustic blink reflex. Psychophysiology, 28, 588-595.
72. Gunnar, M.R. (1990). The psychobiology of infant temperament. In J. Colombo & J. Fagan (Eds.), Individual differences in infancy: Reliability, stability, prediction (pp. 387-409). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
73. Heisel, A.D., Beatty, M.J., Rudd, J.E., Dobos, J.A., Valencic, K., & Perger, R. (1997, November). A factor analytic evaluation of communication apprehension as temperamental expression. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago.
74. Horvath, C.W. (1995). Biological origins of communicator style. Communication Quarterly, 43, 394-407.
75. Jablin, F.M., & Sussman, L. (1978). An exploration of communication and productivity in real brainstorming groups. Human Communication Research, 4, 329-337.
76. Jordan, W.J., & Powers, W.G. (1978). Verbal behavior as a function of apprehension and social context. Human Communication Research, 4, 294-300.
77. Kagan, J. (1992). Temperamental contributions to emotion and social behavior. In M.S. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and social behavior (pp. 99-118). Newbury Park, NJ: Sage.
78. Kagan, J., Reznick, J.S., & Sidman, N. (1988). Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167-171.
79. Kagan, J., & Sidman, N. (1991). Infant predictors of inhibited and uninhibited profiles. Psychological Science, 2, 40-44.
80. Knapp, M.L., Miller, G.R., & Fudge, K. (1994). Background and current trends in the study of interpersonal communication. In M.L. Knapp & G.R. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (2nd ed., pp. 3-20). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
81. LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. In J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.), Mind and brain: Dialogues in cognitive neuroscience (pp. 301-354). New York: Cambridge University Press.
82. LeDoux, J.E., Cicchetti, P., Xagoraris, A., & Romanski, L.M. (1990). The lateral amygdaloid nucleus: Sensory interface of the amygdala in fear conditioning. Journal of Neuroscience, 10, 1062-1069.
83. Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7, 186-189.
84. MacLean, P.D. (1955). The limbic system ("visceral brain") and emotional behavior. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 73, 130-134.
85. MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1988). Anxiety and the allocation of attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 653-670.
86. Marieb, E.N., & Mallatt, J. (1992). Human Anatomy. Redwood City, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
87. Matheny, A.P., Jr., Riese, M.L., & Wilson, R.S. (1985). Rudiments of infant temperament: Newborn to nine months. Developmental Psychology, 21, 486-494.
88. Mathews, A. (1990). The cognitive function of anxiety. Behavioral Research and Therapy, 28, 455-468.
89. McCroskey, J.C. (1976). The effects of communication apprehension on nonverbal behavior. Communication Quarterly, 24, 39-44.
90. McCroskey, J.C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research, 4, 78-96.
91. McCroskey, J.C. (1978). Validity of the PRCA as an index of oral communication apprehension. Communication Monographs, 45, 193-203.
92. McCroskey, J.C. (1982). Introduction to rhetorical communication (4th ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Prentice Hall.
93. McCroskey, J.C. (1984). The communication apprehension perspective. In J.A. Daly & J.C. McCroskey (Eds.). Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension (pp. 13-38). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
94. McCroskey, J.C., & Andersen, J.F. (1976). The relationship between communication apprehension and academic achievement among college students. Human Communication Research, 3, 73-81.
95. McCroskey, J.C., & Beatty, M.J. (1984). Communication apprehension and accumulated communication state anxiety experiences: A research note. Communication Monographs, 51, 79-84.
96. McCroskey, J.C., & Beatty, M.J. (in press). Communication apprehension. In J.C. McCroskey, J.A. Daly, M. Martin, & M.J. Beatty (Eds.), Personality and communication: Trait perspectives. New York: Hampton Press.
97. McCroskey, J.C., Beatty, M.J., Kearney, P., & Plax, T.G. (1985). The content validity of the PRCA as a measure of communication apprehension across communication contexts. Communication Quarterly, 33, 165-173.
98. McCroskey, J.C., Daly, J.A., Richmond, V.P., & Falcione, R.L. (1977). Studies of the relationship between communication apprehension and self-esteem. Human Communication Research, 3, 269-277.
99. McCroskey, J.C., Daly, J.A., & Sorensen, G.A. (1976). Personality correlates of communication apprehension: A research note. Human Communication Research, 2, 376-380.
100. McCroskey, J.C., & McVetta, R.W. (1978). Classroom seating arrangements: Instructional communication theory versus student preferences. Communication Education, 27, 99-111.
101. McCroskey, J.C., & Richmond, V.P. (1977). Communication apprehension as a predictor of self-disclosure. Communication Quarterly, 25, 40-43.
102. McCroskey, J.C., & Richmond, V.P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J.C. McCroskey & J.A. Daly (Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication (pp. 129-156). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
103. McCroskey, J.C., & Sheahan, M.E. (1978). Communication apprehension, social preference, and social behavior in a college environment. Communication Quarterly, 26, 42-45.
104. Miller, M.D. (1987). The relationship of communication reticence and negative expectations. Communication Education, 3, 228-235.
105. Mortensen, C.D., Arntson, P.H., & Lustig, M. (1976). The measurement of verbal predispositions: Scale development and application. Human Communication Research, 3, 146-158.
106. Myers, D.G., & Dierer, F. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, 10-19.
107. Myers, R.M. (1976). Validation of systematic desensitization of speech anxiety through galvanic skin response. Communication Monographs, 41, 233-235.
108. Nelson, C. A. (1993). The development of recognition memory in the first postnatal year of life. In G. Dawson & K. Fischer (Eds.), Human behavior and the developing brain (pp. 269-313). New York: Guilford Press.
109. Nelson, C.A. (1994). Neural basis of infant temperament. In J.E. Bates & T.D. Wachs (Eds.). Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 47-82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
110. Panksepp, J. (1982). Toward a general psychobiology of emotions. Behavioral and Brain Research, 5, 407-467.
111. Panksepp, J. (1986). The anatomy of emotions. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory research and experience: Biological foundations of emotions (Vol. 3, pp. 91-124). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
112. Porter, R., & Collins, G.M. (1982, Eds.). Temperamental differences in infants and young children. London: Pitman.
113. Posner, M.I. (1990). Hierarchical distributed networks in the neuropsychology of selective attention. In A. Carramaza (Ed.), Cognitive neuropsychology and neurolinguistics: Advances in models of cognitive function and impairment (pp. 187-210). New York: Plenum.
114. Posner, M.I., & Peterson, S.E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 24-42.
115. Posner, M.I, & Presti, D. (1987). Selective attention and cognitive control. Trends in Neuroscience, 10, 12-17.
116. Reiman, E.M., Fusselman, M.J., Fox, P.T., & Raichle, M.E. (1989). Neuroanatomical correlates of anticipatoryanxiety. Science, 243, 1071-1074.
117. Reiman, E.M., Raichle, M.E., Butler, F.K., Herscovitch, P., & Robins, E. (1984). A focal brain abnormality in panic disorder, a severe form of anxiety. Nature, 310, 683-685.
118. Reynolds, P.D. (1971). A primer in theory construction. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.
119. Riese, M.L. (1987). Temperamental stability between the neonatal period and 24 months. Developmental Psychology, 23, 216-222.
120. Rolls, E.T. (1990). A theory of emotion, and its application to understanding the neural basis of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 161-190.
121. Rothbart, M.K. (1989). Temperament and development. In G.A. Kohnstamm, J.E. Bates, & M.K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 187-247). New York: Wiley.
122. Rothbart, M.K., Derryberry, D., & Posner, M.I. (1994). A psychobiological approach to the development of temperament. In J.E. Bates & T.D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 83116). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
123. Rushton, J.P., Fulker, D.W., Neal, M.C., Nias, D.K.B., & Eysenck, H.J. (1986). Altruism and aggression: The heritability of individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1192-1198.
124. Sears, L.L., & Steinmetz, J.E. (1990). Acquisition of classically conditioned-related activity in the hippocampus is affected by lesions of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104, 681-692.
125. Sieber J.E. (1977). A paradigm for research on treatment designed to modify anxiety of its effects. In J.E. Sieber, H.F. O'Neil, Jr., & S. Tobias (Eds.), Anxiety, learning, and instruction (pp. 41-72). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
126. Smith, O., & De Vito, J. (1984). Central nervous integration for the control of autonomic responses associated with emotion. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 7, 43-65.
127. Smith, R.E., & Sarason, I.G. (1975). Social anxiety and evaluation of negative interpersonal feedback. Journal of Consulting and Counseling Psychology, 43, 429-439.
128. Sorensen, G.A., & McCroskey, J.C. (1977). The prediction of interaction behavior in small groups: Zero history versus intact groups. Communication Monographs, 44, 73-80.
129. Squire, L.R. (1987). Memory and brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
130. Steinmetz, J.E. (1994). Brain substrates of emotion and temperament. In J.E. Bates & T.D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 17-46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
131. Steinmetz J. E., & Thompson, R.F. (1991). Brain substrates of aversive classical conditioning. In J. Madden IV (Ed.). Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect (pp. 97-120). New York: Raven.
132. Stelmack, R.M. (1990). Biological bases of extraversion: Psychophysiological evidence. Journal of Personality,
133. Stelmack R.M., & Geen, R.G. (1992). The psychophysiology of extraversion. In A. Gale & M.W. Eysenck (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences: Biological perspectives (pp. 227-254). New York: Wiley.
134. Strelau, J. (1983). Temperament, personality, and activity. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
135. Strelau, J. (1994). The concepts of arousal and arousability as used in temperament studies. In J.E. Bates & T.D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface with biology and behavior (pp. 117-141). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
136. Stifter, J.E., & Fox, N.A. (1990). Infant reactivity: Physiological correlates of newborns at 5-month temperament. Developmental Psychology, 26, 582-588.
137. Tardy, C.H., Allen, M.T., Thompson, W.R., & Leary, M.R. (1991). Social anxiety ad cardiovascular responses in interpersonal communication. Southern Communication Journal, 57, 25-34.
138. Thomas A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel
139. Thomas, A., Chess, S., & Birch, H. (1968). Temperament and behavior disorders in children. New York: New York
140. Torgerson, A.M. & Kinglen, E. (1978). Genetic aspects of temperamental differences in infants. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 77, 433-444.
141. Vogt, B.A., Finch, D.M., & Olsen, C.R. (1992). Functional heterogeneity in cingulate cortex: The anterior executive and posterior evaluative regions. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 435-443.
142. Wachs, T.D. (1992). The nature of nurture. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
143. Wachs, T.D. Morrow, J., & Slabach, E. (1990). Intra-individual variability in infant visual recognition performance: Temperamental and environmental correlates. Infant Behavior and Development, 13, 401-407.
144. Wallace, D.M., Magnuson, D.J., & Gray, T.S. (1992). Organization of amygdaloid projections to brainstem dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and adrenergic cell groups in rats. Brain Research Bulletin, 28, 447-454.
145. Wine, J. (1971) Test anxiety and direction of attention. Psychological Bulletin, 76, 92-104.
146. Zajonc, R.B., & McIntosh, D.N. (1992). Emotions research: Some promising questions and some questionable promises. Psychological Science, 3, 70-74.
147. Zajonc, R.B., Murphy, S.T., & Eaglehart, M. (1989). Feeling and facial efference: Implications of a vascular theory of emotion. Psychological Review, 96, 395-416.
148. Zuckerman, M. (1991a). Biotypes for basic personality dimensions? "The Twilight Zone" between genotype and social prototype. In J. Strelau & A. Angleitner (Eds.), Explorations in temperament (pp. 129-146). New York: Plenum.
149. Zuckerman, M. (1991b). Psychobiology of personality. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
150. Zuckerman, M. (1994). Impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking: Biological dimension of a basic dimension of personality. In J.E. Bates & T.D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 219-255). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
151. Zuckerman, M. (1995). Good and bad humors: Biochemical bases of personality and its disorders. Psychological Science, 6, 325-332.
152. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D.M., & Camac, C. (1988). What lies beyond E and N? Factor analysis of scales believed to measure basic dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 96-107.