Consumerism and environmental policy: Moving past consumer culture

Ecology Law Quarterly

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 543-609

  Harsch, Bradley A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039136247     PISSN: 00461121     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (343)

1. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development: Vol. 1, Agenda Item 21, at 13, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (1993) [hereinafter Rio Conference Report].
2. See id. at 34.
3. See supra notes 304-07 and accompanying text.
4. See Jeffrey Friedman & Adam McCabe, Preferences or Happiness? Tibor Scitovsky's Psychology of Human Needs, 10 CRITICAL REV. 471, 475 (1996).
5. An understanding of the assumptions underlying our legal system is crucial to addressing the problem of consumption because conceptions of what law is tend to legitimate our economic behavior. See Duncan Kennedy, A Symposium of Critical Legal Study: The Role of Law in Economic Thought: Essays on the Fetishism of Commodities, 34 AM. U. L. REV. 939 (1985).
6. See TIM JACKSON, MATERIAL CONCERNS: POLLUTION, PROFIT AND QUALITY OF LIFE 7, 20, 22 (1996).
7. See DANIEL SITARZ, AGENDA 21: THE EARTH SUMMIT STRATEGY TO SAVE OUR PLANET 38-39 (1993).
8. See generally Thomas E. Graedel & Paul J. Crutzen, The Changing Atmosphere, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 60.
9. See id. at 63-64.
10. See id. at 60-61.
11. See id. at 61.
12. See generally J.W. Maurits la Rivière, Threats to the World's Water, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 82.
13. See Graedel & Crutzen, supra note 8, at 61.
14. Ria Conference Report, supra note 1, at 34. One study indicates that in some cases "economic growth has been accompanied by a change in the composition of output and a change in the methods of production that more than compensates for the increased scale of activity." Gene M. Grossman, Pollution and Growth: What Do We Know?, in THE ECONOMICS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 19, 41 (Ian Goldin & L. Alan Winters eds., 1995). The key factor in this improved environmental protection is the policy response of government. See id. at 43. Grossman concedes that such improvement may result merely from the rich nations' ability to import pollution intensive goods from poorer nations rather than to produce such goods at home. Id. Even so, it does not follow from the fact that there is a correlation between economic activity and environmental protection that people may consume without injuring the environment. This correlation simply indicates that richer people demand better environmental protection from industry.
15. Ria Conference Report, supra note 1, at 34. One study indicates that in some cases "economic growth has been accompanied by a change in the composition of output and a change in the methods of production that more than compensates for the increased scale of activity." Gene M. Grossman, Pollution and Growth: What Do We Know?, in THE ECONOMICS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 19, 41 (Ian Goldin & L. Alan Winters eds., 1995). The key factor in this improved environmental protection is the policy response of government. See id. at 43. Grossman concedes that such improvement may result merely from the rich nations' ability to import pollution intensive goods from poorer nations rather than to produce such goods at home. Id. Even so, it does not follow from the fact that there is a correlation between economic activity and environmental protection that people may consume without injuring the environment. This correlation simply indicates that richer people demand better environmental protection from industry.
16. See William C. Clark, Managing Planet Earth, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 47, 50.
17. See id.
18. See PAUL HAWKEN, THE ECOLOGY OF COMMERCE 21-22 (1993).
19. Id. at 12.
20. See id. at 37.
21. See id. at 12.
22. James Salzman, Sustainable Consumption and the Law, 27 ENVTL. L. 1243, 1247 (1997). Salzman defines sustainable consumption as "a level of consumption which causes a level of environmental impact over time that does not degrade basic ecosystem services . . . ." id. at 1246.
23. See Michael C. Blumm, Studying Environmental Law: A Brief Overview and Readings for a Seminar, 12 J. ENERGY NAT. RESOURCES & ENVTL L. 309, 312 (1992).
24. 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401-7671q (1994).
25. 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1387 (1994).
26. 42 U.S.C. §§ 6921-6939e (1994).
27. See Blumm, supra note 22, at 315.
28. 42 U.S.C. §§ 9601-9675 (1994).
29. 7 U.S.C. §§ 136-136y (1994).
30. 15 U.S.C. §§ 2601-2692 (1994).
31. See generally Blumm, supra note 22, at 321.
32. Pub. L. No. 95-625, 92 Stat. 3467 (1978) (codified as amended in scattered sections of 16 U.S.C.).
33. See Blumm, supra note 22, at 322.
34. See National Forest Management Act of 1976, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1600-1614, 472a, 521b (1994).
35. See National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, 16 U.S.C. §§ 668dd-668ee (1994).
36. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1271-1287 (1994).
37. See Wilderness Act, 16 U.S.C. §§ 1131-1136 (1994); see also Blumm, supra note 22, at 322.
38. 16 U.S.C. §§ 1361-1421h (1994).
39. 16 U.S.C. §§ 703-711 (1994).
40. 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (1994); see also Blumm, supra note 22, at 323.
41. 16 U.S.C. §1538(a)(1) (1994).
42. 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a)(1)(A) (1994).
43. See JACKSON, supra note 6, at 43.
44. Id.
45. Cf. id. at 48-51.
46. Id. at 49.
47. See id. at 49-51.
48. See William D. Ruckelshaus, Toward a Sustainable World, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 168.
49. See generally 42 U.S.C. §§ 7651b-7651e (1994).
50. JACKSON, supra note 6, at 55-56.
51. See, e.g., Robert U. Ayres & Allen V. Kneese, Production, Consumption and Externalities, in THE ECONOMICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT 282, 282 (Wallace E. Oates ed., 1992); Jim MacNeill, Strategies for Sustainable Economic Development, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 163.
52. See, e.g., Robert U. Ayres & Allen V. Kneese, Production, Consumption and Externalities, in THE ECONOMICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT 282, 282 (Wallace E. Oates ed., 1992); Jim MacNeill, Strategies for Sustainable Economic Development, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Sept. 1989, at 163.
53. MacNeill, supra note 50, at 163-64.
54. Id. at 163.
55. See id.
56. See id. at 163-64.
57. See Rio Conference Report, supra note 1, at 39; see also Salzman, supra note 21.
58. See Thomas Sterner, Policy Instruments for a Sustainable Economy, in ECONOMIC POLICIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1, 9 (Thomas Sterner ed., 1994).
59. See id.
60. See id.
61. See, e.g., JACKSON, supra note 6, at 56; MacNeill, supra note 50, at 162.
62. See JACKSON, supra note 6, at 76.
63. MacNeill, supra note 50, at 159.
64. See LESTER R. BROWN ET AL., STATE OF THE WORLD 1997, at 242 (1997).
65. Id.
66. See Salzman, supra note 21.
67. See id.
68. See id.
69. Rio Conference Report, supra note 1, at 38.
70. See id. at 38-39.
71. See ALAN THEIN DURNING, HOW MUCH IS ENOUGH?: THE CONSUMER SOCIETY AND THE FUTURE OF THE EARTH 139 (1992) (discussing books such as these and their impact on "informing the consumer class").
72. Id. at 38.
73. See Janeen Arnold Costa, The Social Organization of Consumer Behavior, in CONTEMPORARY MARKETING AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOURCEBOOK 213, 216 (John F. Sherry, Jr. ed., 1995).
74. Id.
75. JOHN O'NEILL, ECOLOGY, POLICY AND POLITICS: HUMAN WELL-BEING AND THE NATURAL WORLD 92 (1993).
76. See John F. Sherry, Jr., Marketing and Consumer Behavior: Into the Field, in CONTEMPORARY MARKETING AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, supra note 71, at 3, 8.
77. See, e.g., Richard Wightman Fox, Epitaph for Middletown: Robert S. Lynd and the Analysis of Consumer Culture, in THE CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION 101, 103 (T.J. Jackson Lears ed., 1983).
78. Richard Wightman Fox & T. J. Jackson Lears, Introduction, in THE CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION, supra note 75, at vii, ix.
79. THORSTEIN VEBLEN, THE THEORY OF THE LEISURE CLASS: AN ECONOMIC STUDY IN THE EVOLUTION OF INSTITUTIONS (London, MacMillan 1899).
80. See Fox & Lears, supra note 76, at ix.
81. See id. at x.
82. Id. at ix-x.
83. DURNING, supra note 69, at 21-22.
84. See Fox & Lears, supra note 76, at x.
85. See id. at xi.
86. See generally id. at xii.
87. See T.J. Jackson Lears, From Salvation to Self-Realization: Advertising and the Therapeutic Roots of the Consumer Culture, 1880-1930, in THE CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION, supra note 75, at 1, 3-4.
88. See id. at 3.
89. See id. at 6.
90. Id. at 7.
91. Id.
92. Id. at 6.
93. See DAVID RIESMAN, THE LONELY CROWD xix (2nd ed. 1961).
94. See Fox & Lears, supra note 76, at 6-7.
95. Id. at 8.
96. Id.
97. Id. at 10.
98. See id. at 11.
99. Id. at 19.
100. Fox & Lears, supra note 76, at xiv-xv.
101. N. CRAIG SMITH, MORALITY AND THE MARKET: CONSUMER PRESSURE FOR CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY 168 (1990) (quoting GORDON R. FOXALL, STRATEGIC MARKETING MANAGEMENT 71 (1981)).
102. N. CRAIG SMITH, MORALITY AND THE MARKET: CONSUMER PRESSURE FOR CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY 168 (1990) (quoting GORDON R. FOXALL, STRATEGIC MARKETING MANAGEMENT 71 (1981)).
103. ERIC CLARK, THE WANT MAKERS 23 (1988).
104. Theodore Levitt, The Augmented-Product Concept, in CORPORATE STRATEGY AND PRODUCT INNOVATION 148, 149 (Robert R. Rothberg ed., 1976).
105. Id.
106. See id. at 154, 156. Consider the General Motors Pontiac slogan, "We Build Excitement."
107. Id. at 156.
108. See CLARK, supra note 100, at 24.
109. See id.
110. See Fox & Lears, supra note 76, at 18.
111. Id.
112. Id. at 19.
113. William Leiss & Stanley J. Shapiro, Symbolism, Consumption, and the Quality-of-Life, in MARKETING AND THE QUALITY-OF-LIFE INTERFACE 153, 155 (A. Coskun Samli ed., 1987).
114. CELIA LURY, CONSUMER CULTURE 50 (1996) (discussing Leiss' argument).
115. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 22.
116. See generally TIBOR SCITOVSKY, THE JOYLESS ECONOMY: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN SATISFACTION (rev. ed. 1992).
117. See CLARK, supra note 100, at 186.
118. SELINA S. GUBER & JON BERRY, MARKETING TO AND THROUGH KIDS 22 (1993).
119. Id.
120. Id. at 22-23.
121. Costa, supra note 71, at 219.
122. See LURY, supra note 111, at 17.
123. Thomas Frank, Alternative to What?, in COMMODIFY YOUR DISSENT: SALVOS FROM THE BAFFLER 145, 150-51 (Thomas Frank & Matt Weiland eds., 1997).
124. Leiss & Shapiro, supra note 110, at 166 (quoting G.D. MCCRACKEN & R.W. POLLAY, ANTHROPOLOGY & THE STUDY OF ADVERTISING (1982) (unpublished paper, University of British Columbia, Canada)).
125. DURNING, supra note 69, at 40.
126. Id.
127. RIESMAN, supra note 91, at 21.
128. Id. at 22.
129. Id. at 24.
130. See CLARK, supra note 100, at 171.
131. JULIET B. SCHOR, THE OVERSPENT AMERICAN: UPSCALING, DOWNSHIFTING, AND THE NEW CONSUMER 4 (1998).
132. See id. at 4-5, 80-82.
133. See id. at 5.
134. See id. at 6.
135. GUBER & BERRY, supra note 115, at 25.
136. Id.
137. See KARL MARX, Capital: An Analysis of Capitalist Production, in CAPITAL AND OTHER WRITINGS 13, 205-07 (Max Eastman ed., The Modern Library 1959); KARL MARX, The Communist Manifesto, in CAPITAL AND OTHER WRITINGS, supra, at 315, 324.
138. See KARL MARX, Capital: An Analysis of Capitalist Production, in CAPITAL AND OTHER WRITINGS 13, 205-07 (Max Eastman ed., The Modern Library 1959); KARL MARX, The Communist Manifesto, in CAPITAL AND OTHER WRITINGS, supra, at 315, 324.
139. Costa, supra note 71, at 220.
140. GENE DEL VECCHIO, CREATING EVER-COOL: A MARKETER'S GUIDE TO A KID'S HEART 123 (1998) (emphasis added).
141. Id. at 34.
142. HAWKEN, supra note 17, 132.
143. See id. at 131.
144. CLARK, supra note 100, at 201.
145. The Coca-Cola Company, 1998 Annual Report (visited May 24, 1999) .
146. See SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 5.
147. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 120. Durning also notes that total global advertising expenditures between 1950 and 1988 increased from an estimated $39 billion to $247 billion, a rate far greater than economic output. See id.
148. See HAWKEN, supra note 17, at 131.
149. See TV-Free America (visited Feb. 26, 1999) .
150. Cf. PAUL A. BARAN, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF GROWTH xvii (1962). See generally David Kiron, Overview Essay, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY 229 (Neva R. Goodwin et al. eds., 1997).
151. Cf. PAUL A. BARAN, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF GROWTH xvii (1962). See generally David Kiron, Overview Essay, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY 229 (Neva R. Goodwin et al. eds., 1997).
152. BARAN, supra note 146, at xii (quoting ROSSER REEVES, REALITY IN ADVERTISING 141 (1961)).
153. See T.J. Jackson Lears, From Salvation to Self-Realization, in THE CULTURE OF CONSUMPTION, supra note 75, at 1, 4.
154. Leiss, supra note 110, at 166 (quoting G.D. McCracken & R.W. Pollay, Anthropology & the Study of Advertising (1982) (unpublished paper, University of British Columbia, Canada)).
155. Costa, supra note 71, at 305.
156. See THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, FACTS, FIGURES AND FEATURES 8-9 (1996).
157. See id. at 9.
158. See id.
159. See id.
160. See id.
161. CLARK, supra note 100, at 89.
162. See THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, supra note 151, at 9.
163. RIESMAN, supra note 91, at 228.
164. Id.
165. CLARK, supra note 100, at 13.
166. Id. at 16.
167. REISMAN, supra note 91, at 229.
168. SCHOR, supra note 128, at 19.
169. See id. at 83.
170. Tom Vanderbilt, The Advertised Life, in COMMODIFY YOUR DISSENT, supra note 120, at 127, 131-32.
171. Id. at 132.
172. Id.
173. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 118.
174. See TV-Free America, supra note 145.
175. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 42-43.
176. See id. at 6.
177. JOHN ELKINGTON & JULIA HAILES, THE GREEN CONSUMER 5 (1990).
178. See CLARK, supra note 100, at 30.
179. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 52.
180. See generally CLARK, supra note 100, at 23.
181. See THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, 1995 ANNUAL REPORT 5, 34 (1996). Coca-Cola sold 12.7 billion "unit cases," and there are 24 8-ounce servings in one unit case. See id.
182. See The Coca-Cola Company, The Next Billion (visited May 22, 1999) .
183. Because statistics essential to this calculation were unavailable in Coca-Cola's publications, this argument assumes that Coca-Cola's by-package distribution is roughly the same as Pepsi's. PepsiCo. sold 70% of its product to retailers in 1995, and 30% to restaurants and fountains. See PEPSICO. INC., 1995 ANNUAL REPORT 5 (1996). Assuming that the amount sold to retailers consisted of bottles and cans, 55% of retail sales were cans while 38% were bottles. See id.
184. The author weighed a can himself.
185. See THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, THE COCA-COLA COMPANY & THE ENVIRONMENT: EXPANDING THE SPIRIT OF REFRESHMENT 8 (1997).
186. See ELKINGTON, supra note 172, at 44.
187. See id. at 13.
188. See id. at 8.
189. See, e.g., id. at 36.
190. See id. at 38.
191. See THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, 1994 ANNUAL REPORT 20 (1996).
192. See ELKINGTON, supra note 172, at 72.
193. See id.
194. See id. at 70.
195. See, e.g., id. at 9.
196. See The Coca-Cola Company, Notes to Consolidated Financial Statement (visited May 24, 1999), .
197. See PETER S. MENELL & RICHARD B. STEWART, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW & POLICY 102 (1994).
198. See id. at 100.
199. See Salzman, supra note 21, at 1261.
200. O'NEILL, supra note 73, at 5.
201. See Salzman, supra note 21, at 1261; see also infra Parts VI.D & VI.E (discussing proposals based on this approach).
202. See BERKELEY, CAL., CODE, § 11.60.030, § 11.60.040 (1988).
203. See id. § 11.62 (1991).
204. See supra Part III.B.
205. LURY, supra note 111, at 51.
206. Ruckelshaus, supra note 47, at 168.
207. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 133-34.
208. See, e.g., DURNING, supra note 69, at 23.
209. See id. at 39.
210. See SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 134-35.
211. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 39.
212. See id. at 23.
213. See id. at 42.
214. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 152.
215. See Friedman & McCabe, supra note 4, at 472-73.
216. See SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 15-25.
217. See JOSEPH L. SAX, MOUNTAINS WITHOUT HANDRAILS, 55 (1980) (citing MAHALYI CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, BEYOND BOREDOM & ANXIETY 196 (1975)).
218. See JOSEPH L. SAX, MOUNTAINS WITHOUT HANDRAILS, 55 (1980) (citing MAHALYI CSIKSZENTMIHALYI, BEYOND BOREDOM & ANXIETY 196 (1975)).
219. See id. at 56-57. The fact that these activities are engaged in as a result of an internal drive, rather than the promise of an external reward, is also important to Csikszentimihalyi's conclusion that they are more satisfying than other types of activities.
220. See id. at 474.
221. See id.
222. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 86.
223. See id. at 83.
224. Id. at 189.
225. See id. at 89-102.
226. See id. at 211.
227. JULIET B. SCHOR, THE OVERWORKED AMERICAN 112 (1991). A recent poster in San Francisco put it succinctly: "Working to pay off the car, so that I can drive to work to pay off the house, so that I can rest and be ready to work again."
228. See id. at 2.
229. See id.
230. See id. at 47.
231. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 47.
232. See The American Way of Leisure, THE ECONOMIST, Mar. 1, 1997, at 36.
233. Id.
234. RIESMAN, supra note 91, at 189.
235. See TV-Free America, supra note 145.
236. See id.
237. See DURNING, supra note 69, at 131-32.
238. See SCHOR, supra note 128, at 80.
239. See, e.g., HANNAH ARENDT, THE HUMAN CONDITION 210 (1958); RIESMAN, supra note 91.
240. ARENDT, supra note 233, at 8.
241. SAX, supra note 212, at 58 (citing CARL B. ROGERS, ON BECOMING A PERSON (1961)).
242. ARENDT, supra note 233, at 51.
243. Jonathon Rowe, Down Among the Economists (visited May 17, 1999) .
244. Id.
245. VáCLAV HAVEL, Letter to Dr. Gustáv Husák, in LIVING IN TRUTH 3, 12 (Jan Vladislav ed., 1986).
246. VÁCLAV HAVEL, The Power of the Powerless, in LIVING IN TRUTH, supra note 239, at 36, 116.
247. See HAVEL, Letter to Dr. Gustáv Husák, in LIVING IN TRUTH, supra note 239, at 3, 13.
248. Tom Vanderbilt, The Advertised Life, in COMMODIFY YOUR DISSENT, supra note 120, at 127, 135.
249. Thomas Frank, Closing Salvo: Dark Age, in COMMODIFY YOUR DISSENT, supra note 120, at 255, 260.
250. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 80.
251. See generally DEL VECCHIO, supra note 136.
252. See generally supra notes 204-19 and accompanying text.
253. DURNING, supra note 69, at 23.
254. HAVEL, supra note 239, at 4, 16.
255. See id. at 16.
256. Id.
257. See id.
258. See id.
259. Id. at 19.
260. Id. at 18; see also HAVEL, The Power of the Powerless, in LIVING IN TRUTH, supra note 239, at 36, 62.
261. Id. at 62 (emphasis in original).
262. JOSé ORTEGA Y GASSET, THE REVOLT OF THE MASSES 58 (1957).
263. Rowe, supra note 237.
264. MARX, The Communist Manifesto, in CAPITAL AND OTHER WRITINGS, supra note 134, at 323.
265. ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 51.
266. Id. at 58-59. Ortega y Gasset uses the term "mass man" but the similarities between his "mass man" and the modern consumer are such that one term is exchangeable for the other.
267. HAVEL, The Power of the Powerless, in LIVING IN TRUTH, supra note 239, at 36, 62.
268. ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 59.
269. See Kennedy, supra note 5, at 968.
270. ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 76.
271. Rowe, supra note 237.
272. Id.
273. Since this Article argues that it is in people's interest to abandon the consumer culture, it is important to note that that claim is not based on the narrow view of self-interest conceptualized in utility theories. Although this Article argues that consumerism fails to provide the utility (happiness) it promises, it also argues that it fails precisely because it falls short on ethical grounds for which utility may not be the proper "interest" we should seek.
274. In a 1989 survey, three quarters of consumers say they are willing to spend more money on products packaged with recyclable or biodegradable materials. See ELKINGTON, supra note 172, at 6. This indicates at least some degree of willingness to sacrifice in the name of ecology.
275. See Ruckelshaus, supra note 47, at 169.
276. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 4.
277. See MORTIMER ADLER, A VISION OF THE FUTURE 91-92 (1984).
278. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at xii.
279. See id. at 5.
280. See Frank Ackerman, Foundations of Economic Theories of Consumption: Overview Essay, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY, supra note 146, at 149, 152.
281. UTILITARIANISM AND BEYOND 12 (Amartya Sen & Bernard Williams eds., 1982)
282. Id. at 12-13.
283. Id. at 13.
284. See IMMANUEL KANT, GROUNDWORK OF THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS (H.J. Paton trans., Harper & Row 1964) (1785).
285. ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 62 (emphasis removed).
286. SAX, supra note 212, at 51.
287. Id.
288. See ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 72.
289. Id.
290. AMARTYA SEN, ON ETHICS AND ECONOMICS 4 (1987).
291. Id. at 15.
292. See supra notes 284-85 and accompanying text.
293. See supra notes 203-08 and accompanying text.
294. See Frank Ackerman, Foundations of Economic Theories of Consumption, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY, supra note 146, at 149, 153.
295. See CHARLES TAYLOR, HEGEL 540 (1975).
296. David A. Crocker, Consumption, Well-Being, and Virtue, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY, supra note 146, at 14, 17; see also Martha Nussbaum, Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach, in THE QUALITY OF LIFE 242-69 (Martha Nussbaum & Amartya Sen eds., 1993).
297. David A. Crocker, Consumption, Well-Being, and Virtue, in THE CONSUMER SOCIETY, supra note 146, at 14, 17; see also Martha Nussbaum, Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach, in THE QUALITY OF LIFE 242-69 (Martha Nussbaum & Amartya Sen eds., 1993).
298. O'NEILL, supra note 73, at 3.
299. Crocker, supra note 290, at 17.
300. ARENDT, supra note 233, at 36-37.
301. PLATO, Phaedo, in 1 PLATO 201, 231 (Harold North Fowler trans., Harvard University Press, 1995).
302. Id.
303. ARENDT, supra note 233, at 133.
304. Id. at 198.
305. Id. at 27.
306. See HAVEL, supra note 239, at 16.
307. Id. at 4.
308. See ARENDT, supra note 233, at 28.
309. See id. at 29-30.
310. Id. at 33.
311. Salzman, supra note 21, at 1269.
312. See supra note 238.
313. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Sustainable Consumption and Production (visited Feb. 27. 1999) .
314. See SCHOR, supra note 128, at 139.
315. See Juliet B. Schor, What's Wrong with Consumer Capitalism?, CRITICAL REV., Fall 1996, at 507 n. 16.
316. See Ruckelshaus, supra note 47, at 169.
317. See SCHOR, supra note 128, at 165.
318. Id.
319. See id.
320. See Adbusters, Adbusters TV Uncommercials (visited June 23, 1998) .
321. See Adbusters, Adbusters TV Uncommercials, The Product is You (visited June 23, 1998) .
322. See Adbusters, Adbusters TV Uncommercials, Buy Nothing Day (visited June 23, 1998) .
323. See American Cancer Society, Prop 99 Case Statement (visited June 23, 1998) .
324. See Journal of Health, Politics, Policy and Law, Abstract (visited June 18, 1999) .
325. See Center for Media Education, Limitations on Commercial Time on Television Broadcast Stations (visited June 11, 1998) .
326. See id.
327. Id.
328. See id.
329. See id.
330. DURNING, supra note 69, at 114.
331. See id.
332. See Schor, supra note 308, at 495.
333. See SCHOR, supra note 221, at 142.
334. See id. at 142-43.
335. See id. at 145.
336. See id. at 146.
337. JACKSON, supra note 6, at 179.
338. See HAWKEN, supra note 17, at 149.
339. Gary Groth, A Dream of Perfect Reception, in COMMODIFY YOUR DISSENT, supra note 120, at 183, 193.
340. ORTEGA Y GASSET, supra note 256, at 51.
341. SCITOVSKY, supra note 113, at 229.
342. See id.
343. See id. at 247; see also Friedman & McCabe, supra note 4, at 475.