Democratic consolidation and the military: The East European experience

Comparative Politics

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 21-43

  Barany, Zoltan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039120521     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422191     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. For an exception, see Nancy Bermeo, "Surprise, Surprise: Lessons from 1989 and 1991," in Nancy Bermeo, ed., Liberalization and Democratization in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 198-99.
2. Although Albania is not considered here, it, too, was a Pact member from 1955 to 1968. I also will not deal with postcommunist East Germany, whose army was absorbed into the West German Bundeswehr following reunification in 1990.
3. See Timothy J. Colton, "Perspectives on Civil-Military Relations in the Soviet Union," in Timothy J. Colton and Thane Gustafson, eds., Soldiers and the Soviet State: Civil-Military Relations from Brezhnev to Gorbachev (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), p. 6.
4. See Roman Kolkowicz, The Soviet Military and the Communist Party (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967); William E. Odom, "The Party-Military Connection: A Critique," in Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, eds., Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978), pp. 27-52; and Timothy J. Colton, Commissars and Commanders: The Structure of Soviet Military Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).
5. See Roman Kolkowicz, The Soviet Military and the Communist Party (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967); William E. Odom, "The Party-Military Connection: A Critique," in Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, eds., Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978), pp. 27-52; and Timothy J. Colton, Commissars and Commanders: The Structure of Soviet Military Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).
6. See Roman Kolkowicz, The Soviet Military and the Communist Party (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967); William E. Odom, "The Party-Military Connection: A Critique," in Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, eds., Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1978), pp. 27-52; and Timothy J. Colton, Commissars and Commanders: The Structure of Soviet Military Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).
7. See, for instance, Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, "The Military as an Agent of Political Socialization in Eastern Europe," Armed Forces and Society, 3 (Winter 1977), 249-69; and Jonathan R. Adelman, ed., Communist Armies in Politics (Boulder: Westview Press, 1982).
8. See, for instance, Dale R. Herspring and Ivan Volgyes, "The Military as an Agent of Political Socialization in Eastern Europe," Armed Forces and Society, 3 (Winter 1977), 249-69; and Jonathan R. Adelman, ed., Communist Armies in Politics (Boulder: Westview Press, 1982).
9. This point is developed in more detail in Zoltan Barany, Soldiers and Politics in Eastern Europe, 1945-90 (London: Macmillan, 1993), pp. 113-75.
10. For theoretical analyses of Communist civil-military relations, see Amos Perlmutter and William M. LeoGrande, "The Party in Uniform: Toward a Theory of Civil-Military Relations in Communist Political Systems," American Political Science Review, 76 (December 1982), 778-89; and Zoltan Barany, "Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems: Western Models Revisited," Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 19 (Summer 1991), 75-100.
11. For theoretical analyses of Communist civil-military relations, see Amos Perlmutter and William M. LeoGrande, "The Party in Uniform: Toward a Theory of Civil-Military Relations in Communist Political Systems," American Political Science Review, 76 (December 1982), 778-89; and Zoltan Barany, "Civil-Military Relations in Communist Systems: Western Models Revisited," Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 19 (Summer 1991), 75-100.
12. See Ivan Volgyes, The Political Reliability of the Warsaw Pact Armies: The Southern Tier (Durham: Duke University Press, 1982); and Daniel N. Nelson, ed., Soviet Allies: The Warsaw Pact and the Issue of Reliability (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984).
13. See Ivan Volgyes, The Political Reliability of the Warsaw Pact Armies: The Southern Tier (Durham: Duke University Press, 1982); and Daniel N. Nelson, ed., Soviet Allies: The Warsaw Pact and the Issue of Reliability (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984).
14. See, for instance, William Crowther, " 'Ceausescuism' and Civil-Military Relations in Romania," Armed Forces and Society, 15 (Winter 1989), 207-25.
15. See, for instance, "Hadsereg es rendszervaltas" [Military and Transition] Mozgo Vilag, 19 (December 1993), 17-30.
16. See Zoltan Barany, "Romania and the Warsaw Pact," paper presented at the U.S. Air Force Intelligence Conference on Soviet Affairs, Arlington, Virginia, October 19-22, 1988 and Zoltan Barany, "Military Higher Education in Hungary," Armed Forces and Society, 15 (Spring 1989), 371-89.
17. See Zoltan Barany, "Romania and the Warsaw Pact," paper presented at the U.S. Air Force Intelligence Conference on Soviet Affairs, Arlington, Virginia, October 19-22, 1988 and Zoltan Barany, "Military Higher Education in Hungary," Armed Forces and Society, 15 (Spring 1989), 371-89.
18. See Zoltan Barany, "Civil-Military Relations in Comparative Perspective: East-Central and Southeastern Europe," Political Studies, 41 (December 1993), 594-610.
19. Thomas S. Szayna and F. Stephen Larrabee, East European Military Reform after the Cold War (Santa Monica: Rand, 1995), pp. 8-10.
20. See Andrew A. Michta, Red Eagle: The Army in Polish Politics, 1944-1988 (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1990), chs. 6-9.
21. See an elegant definition of the two concepts in Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 6. For an excellent study of postrevolution Hungary, see Rudolf L. Tokes, Hungary's Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
22. See an elegant definition of the two concepts in Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 6. For an excellent study of postrevolution Hungary, see Rudolf L. Tokes, Hungary's Negotiated Revolution: Economic Reform, Social Change, and Political Succession, 1957-1990 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
23. For useful studies of Communist Romania, see Vlad Georgescu, ed., Romania: Forty Years (1944-1984) (New York: Praeger, 1984); and Daniel N. Nelson, Romanian Politics in the Ceausescu Era (New York: Gordon Breach, 1989).
24. For useful studies of Communist Romania, see Vlad Georgescu, ed., Romania: Forty Years (1944-1984) (New York: Praeger, 1984); and Daniel N. Nelson, Romanian Politics in the Ceausescu Era (New York: Gordon Breach, 1989).
25. Andrew C. Janos, "Social Science, Communism, and the Dynamics of Political Change," in Bermeo, ed., Liberalization and Democratization, p. 102.
26. See Zoltan Barany, "East European Armies in the Transitions and Beyond," East European Quarterly, 26 (Spring 1992), 1-30.
27. See Jerzy Wiatr, Four Essays on East European Democratic Transformation (Warsaw: Scholar Agency, 1992), pp. 65-66.
28. See Jan Obrman, "Changing Conditions for the Army and the Police," Report on Eastern Europe, 1 (January 26, 1990), 14; and Bradley R. Gitz, Armed Forces and Political Power in Eastern Europe (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), p. 149.
29. See Jan Obrman, "Changing Conditions for the Army and the Police," Report on Eastern Europe, 1 (January 26, 1990), 14; and Bradley R. Gitz, Armed Forces and Political Power in Eastern Europe (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), p. 149.
30. For a detailed description, see Nestor Ratesh, Romania: The Entangled Revolution (Westport: Praeger, 1991).
31. See Sarah Meiklejohn Terry, "Thinking about Post-Communist Transitions: How Comparable Are They?," Slavic Review, 52 (Summer 1993), 333-37; Valerie Bunce, "Should Transitologists Be Grounded?," Slavic Review, 54 (Spring 1995), 111-27; and Valerie Bunce, "Comparing East and South," Journal of Democracy, 6 (July 1995), 87-100.
32. See Sarah Meiklejohn Terry, "Thinking about Post-Communist Transitions: How Comparable Are They?," Slavic Review, 52 (Summer 1993), 333-37; Valerie Bunce, "Should Transitologists Be Grounded?," Slavic Review, 54 (Spring 1995), 111-27; and Valerie Bunce, "Comparing East and South," Journal of Democracy, 6 (July 1995), 87-100.
33. See Sarah Meiklejohn Terry, "Thinking about Post-Communist Transitions: How Comparable Are They?," Slavic Review, 52 (Summer 1993), 333-37; Valerie Bunce, "Should Transitologists Be Grounded?," Slavic Review, 54 (Spring 1995), 111-27; and Valerie Bunce, "Comparing East and South," Journal of Democracy, 6 (July 1995), 87-100.
34. See Alain Rouquié, The Military and the State in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Jorge Zaverucha, "The Degree of Military Political Autonomy during the Spanish, Argentine and Brazilian Transitions," Journal of Latin American Studies, 25 (1993), 283-99.
35. See Alain Rouquié, The Military and the State in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); and Jorge Zaverucha, "The Degree of Military Political Autonomy during the Spanish, Argentine and Brazilian Transitions," Journal of Latin American Studies, 25 (1993), 283-99.
36. See for instance, José Antonio Olmeda, Las fuerzas armadas en el estado franquista (Madrid: Ediciones El Arquero, 1988); and Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 1995).
37. See for instance, José Antonio Olmeda, Las fuerzas armadas en el estado franquista (Madrid: Ediciones El Arquero, 1988); and Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 1995).
38. See Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), pp. 251-53; and Augusto Varas, "Civil-Military Relations in a Democratic Framework," in Louis W. Goodman, Joanna S. R. Mendelson, and Juan Rial, eds., The Military and Democracy: The Future of Civil-Military Relations in Latin America (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 199-218.
39. See Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), pp. 251-53; and Augusto Varas, "Civil-Military Relations in a Democratic Framework," in Louis W. Goodman, Joanna S. R. Mendelson, and Juan Rial, eds., The Military and Democracy: The Future of Civil-Military Relations in Latin America (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1990), pp. 199-218.
40. Huntington, The Third Wave, p. 252.
41. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957), pp. 80-97.
42. Ibid., p. 85.
43. See, for instance, Matthew Soberg Shugart and John Carey, Presidents and Assemblies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1993), 198-228; and Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
44. See, for instance, Matthew Soberg Shugart and John Carey, Presidents and Assemblies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1993), 198-228; and Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
45. See, for instance, Matthew Soberg Shugart and John Carey, Presidents and Assemblies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy," Comparative Political Studies, 26 (1993), 198-228; and Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
46. Alfred Stepan and Cindy Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks and Democratic Consolidation: Parliamentarism versus Presidentialism," World Politics, 46 (October 1993), pp. 1-22.
47. Ibid., p. 3.
48. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, pp. 186-89.
49. Captain Marybeth Peterson Ulrich, "When East Meets West: Fostering Democracy in Postcommunist States," Airpower Journal, 9 (special Edition 1995), 4-16.
50. See, for instance, Jerzy Wiatr, The Soldier and the Nation: The Role of the Military in Polish Politics, 1918-1985 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1988).
51. See ibid.; and Alexander Alexiev, "Party-Military Relations in Eastern Europe: The Case of Romania," in Roman Kolkowicz and Andrzej Korbonski, eds., Soldiers, Peasants, and Bureaucrats: Civil-Military Relations in Communist and Modernizing Societies (London: Allen & Unwin, 1982), pp. 199-231.
52. See ibid.; and Alexander Alexiev, "Party-Military Relations in Eastern Europe: The Case of Romania," in Roman Kolkowicz and Andrzej Korbonski, eds., Soldiers, Peasants, and Bureaucrats: Civil-Military Relations in Communist and Modernizing Societies (London: Allen & Unwin, 1982), pp. 199-231.
53. See A. E. Dick Howard, ed., Constitution Making in Eastern Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
54. See Stepan and Skach, "Constitutional Frameworks," p. 4.
55. See George Schopflin, Rudolf L. Tokes, and Ivan Volgyes, "Leadership Change and Crisis in Hungary," Problems of Communism, 37 (September-October 1988), 27-40.
56. On these issues, see J. F. Brown, Hopes and Shadows: Eastern Europe after Communism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994), pp. 94-105.
57. Magyar Hirlap (Budapest), May 12, 1993.
58. See A honvedelem negy eve, 1990-1994 [Four Years of National Defense] (Budapest: Zrinyi, 1994), pp. 38-47.
59. "New Law on Supreme Defense Council," Monitorul Oficial (Bucharest), Dec. 13, 1990, pp. 2-3, translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Eastern Europe (hereafter FBIS-EEU), Feb. 15, 1991, p. 44.
60. "New Law on Supreme Defense Council," Monitorul Oficial (Bucharest), Dec. 13, 1990, pp. 2-3, translated in Foreign Broadcast Information Service-Eastern Europe (hereafter FBIS-EEU), Feb. 15, 1991, p. 44.
61. "Law on Ministry of National Defense," Viitorul (Bucharest), Jan. 19, 1991, p. 3, in FBIS-EEU, Feb. 1, 1991, p. 43.
62. "Law on Ministry of National Defense," Viitorul (Bucharest), Jan. 19, 1991, p. 3, in FBIS-EEU, Feb. 1, 1991, p. 43.
63. One case in point has been the repeated refusal of the head of police to appear before the parliamentary committee on internal affairs. Interview with Ina Bardan, Helsinki Watch/Grupul Pentru Dialog Social, Bucharest, May 13, 1993.
64. Monitorul Oficial al Romanei, Dec. 13, 1990, cited in Larry L. Watts, "The Romanian Army in the December Revolution and Beyond," in Daniel N. Nelson, ed., Romania after Tyranny (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), p. 111.
65. Monitorul Oficial al Romanei, Dec. 13, 1990, cited in Larry L. Watts, "The Romanian Army in the December Revolution and Beyond," in Daniel N. Nelson, ed., Romania after Tyranny (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), p. 111.
66. See Victor Ianu, "The Supreme Council for the Country's Defense," Dreptatea (Bucharest), Oct. 24, 1991, p. 1, in FBIS-EEU, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 23.
67. See Victor Ianu, "The Supreme Council for the Country's Defense," Dreptatea (Bucharest), Oct. 24, 1991, p. 1, in FBIS-EEU, Nov. 4, 1993, p. 23.
68. In May 1992, for instance, Iliescu assigned eleven generals to the reserves and promoted six colonels to generals. See "Iliescu Promotes Loyal Military Officers," Romania Libera (Bucharest), May 27, 1992, p. 1, in FBIS-EEU, June 1, 1992, p. 33.
69. In May 1992, for instance, Iliescu assigned eleven generals to the reserves and promoted six colonels to generals. See "Iliescu Promotes Loyal Military Officers," Romania Libera (Bucharest), May 27, 1992, p. 1, in FBIS-EEU, June 1, 1992, p. 33.
70. Interview with Larry L. Watts, Project on Ethnic Relations, Bucharest, May 31, 1993.
71. Reuter dispatch (Bucharest), Mar. 17, 1994.
72. For instance, when Valentin Gabrielescu, secretary general of the National Peasant Party and vice chair of the senate defense committee asked Spiroiu about his ministry's intentions concerning equipment modernization in June 1993, he was told that "what we are doing is our business; it is a secret insofar as parliament is concerned." Interview with Gabrielescu, Bucharest, June 2, 1993.
73. For further empirical support concerning civilian control over the armed forces, consult the data pertaining to changes in manpower, defense expenditure, and arsenal in The Military Balance (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, annual).
74. See Barany, Soldiers and Politics, pp. 119-22.
75. Rompres (Bucharest), 0937 GMT, April 27, 1990. Two years later, defense minister Lieutenant General Nicolae Spiroiu was forced to deny persistent rumors about the repoliticization of the armed forces. See Azi (Bucharest), May 7, 1992.
76. See Janos Szabo, "Hadsereg es civil ellenorzes" [Army and Civilian Supervision], Tarsadalmi Szemle, 50 (April 1995), 68-76.
77. See Stephane Lefebvre, "Changes in the Romanian Armed Forces," Jane's Intelligence Review, 7 (January 1995), 8-11.
78. See Watts, "The Romanian Army," pp. 99-105; and Baricada (Bucharest), Jan. 26, 1993, p. 26.
79. See Watts, "The Romanian Army," pp. 99-105; and Baricada (Bucharest), Jan. 26, 1993, p. 26.
80. Watts, "The Romanian Army," p. 103.
81. Ibid., p. 105.
82. See Nepszabadsag (Budapest), Oct. 29, 1990; Magyar Nemzet (Budapest), Nov. 3, 1990; and Endre Sik, "The Vulture and the Calamity (Or, Why Were Hungarian Tax Drivers Able to Rebel?)," in Janos Matyas Kovacs, ed., Transition to Capitalism? The Communist Legacy in Eastern Europe (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1994), pp. 275-89.
83. See Nepszabadsag (Budapest), Oct. 29, 1990; Magyar Nemzet (Budapest), Nov. 3, 1990; and Endre Sik, "The Vulture and the Calamity (Or, Why Were Hungarian Tax Drivers Able to Rebel?)," in Janos Matyas Kovacs, ed., Transition to Capitalism? The Communist Legacy in Eastern Europe (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1994), pp. 275-89.
84. See Nepszabadsag (Budapest), Oct. 29, 1990; Magyar Nemzet (Budapest), Nov. 3, 1990; and Endre Sik, "The Vulture and the Calamity (Or, Why Were Hungarian Tax Drivers Able to Rebel?)," in Janos Matyas Kovacs, ed., Transition to Capitalism? The Communist Legacy in Eastern Europe (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1994), pp. 275-89.
85. Watts, "The Romanian Army," p. 108.
86. See The Guardian, Sept. 27, 1991; and the articles from the Romanian press translated in FBIS-EEU, Sept. 22, 1991, p. 33, Sept. 30, 1991, p. 24, and Oct. 9, 1991, p. 27.
87. See The Guardian, Sept. 27, 1991; and the articles from the Romanian press translated in FBIS-EEU, Sept. 22, 1991, p. 33, Sept. 30, 1991, p. 24, and Oct. 9, 1991, p. 27.
88. Azi (Bucharest), Mar. 16, 1994.
89. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
90. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
91. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
92. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
93. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
94. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
95. See, for instance, Curierul National (Bucharest), Sept. 19, 1991, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 24, 1991, p. 22; Dreptatea (Bucharest), Sept. 2, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Sept. 9, 1992, p. 24; Dimineata (Bucharest), Oct. 24-25, 1992, in FBIS-EEU. Nov. 4, 1992, p. 23; and Dan Ionescu, "The President, the Journalists, and the KGB," Transition, 1 (September 8, 1995), 36, 39.
96. The same conclusion is reached by Dale R. Herspring, "Civil-Military Relations on Post-Communist Eastern Europe: The Potential for Praetorianism," Studies in Comparative Communism, 25 (June 1992), 119.
97. Tineretul liber (Bucharest), Apr. 22, 1994.
98. For a comparative study, see Jeffrey Simon, Central European Civil-Military Relations and NATO Expansion (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, April 1995).
99. See for instance, Valentin Alexandrow, "Entsowjetisierung und nationale Traditionen: Die Militärreform in Bulgarien," Europäische Sicherheit (January 1993), 32-6; "Reformprozesse; und Demokratisierungsbestrebungen in der bulgarischen Armee," Osteuropa, 43 (April 1993), A213-24; and Miroslav Purkrabek, "Social Problems of the Democratic Transformation of the Human Potential in the Czechoslovak Army," Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 6 (June 1993), 221-33.
100. See for instance, Valentin Alexandrow, "Entsowjetisierung und nationale Traditionen: Die Militärreform in Bulgarien," Europäische Sicherheit (January 1993), 32-6; "Reformprozesse; und Demokratisierungsbestrebungen in der bulgarischen Armee," Osteuropa, 43 (April 1993), A213-24; and Miroslav Purkrabek, "Social Problems of the Democratic Transformation of the Human Potential in the Czechoslovak Army," Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 6 (June 1993), 221-33.
101. See for instance, Valentin Alexandrow, "Entsowjetisierung und nationale Traditionen: Die Militärreform in Bulgarien," Europäische Sicherheit (January 1993), 32-6; "Reformprozesse; und Demokratisierungsbestrebungen in der bulgarischen Armee," Osteuropa, 43 (April 1993), A213-24; and Miroslav Purkrabek, "Social Problems of the Democratic Transformation of the Human Potential in the Czechoslovak Army," Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 6 (June 1993), 221-33.
102. A slight problem occurred in Slovakia where, following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Slovak army command was set up before the new ministry of defense in Bratislava, thereby causing some tension between the army and the ministry. Pravda (Bratislava), Apr. 2, 1994, p. 2, translated in FBIS-EEU, Apr. 8, 1994, p. 8.
103. A slight problem occurred in Slovakia where, following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Slovak army command was set up before the new ministry of defense in Bratislava, thereby causing some tension between the army and the ministry. Pravda (Bratislava), Apr. 2, 1994, p. 2, translated in FBIS-EEU, Apr. 8, 1994, p. 8.
104. Andrzej Korbonski, "The Polish Military at a Time of Change," RFE/RL. Research Report, 3 (July 29, 1994) 18.
105. Ibid.
106. OMRI Daily Digest, no. 226, Nov. 20, 1995.
107. "Military and Security Notes," Societies in Transition, 15 (November 1994), 49. See also Jaroslaw Drozd and Lech Kosciuk, "Die polnische Sicherheitspolitik zwischen Ost und West," in Hans-Joachim Giessman and Frank S. Roediger, eds., Militärische Neuordnung in Mittel-Ost-Europa (Bremen: Edition Temmen, 1994), pp. 60-72.
108. "Military and Security Notes," Societies in Transition, 15 (November 1994), 49. See also Jaroslaw Drozd and Lech Kosciuk, "Die polnische Sicherheitspolitik zwischen Ost und West," in Hans-Joachim Giessman and Frank S. Roediger, eds., Militärische Neuordnung in Mittel-Ost-Europa (Bremen: Edition Temmen, 1994), pp. 60-72.
109. See Jan Obrman, "Military Reform in the Czech Republic," RFE/RL Research Report, 2 (October 15, 1993), 37-38.
110. Narodna Armiya (Sofia), Dec. 12, 1989.
111. Gitz, Armed Forces and Political Power, p. 150.
112. Ulrich, "When East Meets West," pp 10-13.
113. Herspring, "Civil-Military Relations," pp. 121-22.
114. See Amos Perlmutter, "The Praetorian State and the Praetorian Army: Toward a Taxonomy of Civil-Military Relations in Developing Polities," Comparative Politics, 1 (April 1969), 385-91.
115. See Roderic Ai Camp, Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
116. See, for instance, Lawrence S. Graham, The Portuguese Military and the State: Rethinking Transitions in Europe and Latin America (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993).