Literacy practices at the Genoa industrial Indian school

Great Plains Quarterly

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 35-52

  Goodburn, Amy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN   (United States)

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EID: 0039110345     PISSN: 02757664     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
2. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
3. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
4. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
5. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
6. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
7. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
8. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Michael Coleman, American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993); Francis Paul Prucha, The Churches and the Indian Schools 1888-1912 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994); Robert A. Trennert Jr., The Phoenix Indian School: Forced Assimilation in Arizona, 1891-1935 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988); Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993); Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996); Isabelle Knockwood, Out of the Depths: Experiences of Mi' Kmaw Children at the Indian Residential School at Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia (Lockeport, N.S.: Roseway, 1992).
9. Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light (note 1 above), p. 98.
10. Celia Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School (Vancouver, B.C.: Tillacum Library, 1988), pp. 21-22; Patricia A. Carter, "'Completely Discouraged': Women Teacher's Resistance in the Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools, 1900-1910," Frontiers 15 (spring 1995): 53 (+34).
11. Celia Haig-Brown, Resistance and Renewal: Surviving the Indian Residential School (Vancouver, B.C.: Tillacum Library, 1988), pp. 21-22; Patricia A. Carter, "'Completely Discouraged': Women Teacher's Resistance in the Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools, 1900-1910," Frontiers 15 (spring 1995): 53 (+34).
12. See Bradley A. Levinson, Douglas E. Foley, and Dorothy C. Holland, eds., The Cultural Production of the Educated Person: Critical Ethnographies of Schooling and Local Practice (Albany: State University of New York, 1996).
13. See Coleman, American Indian Children at School (note 1 above) and Adams, Education for Extinction (note 1 above).
14. See Coleman, American Indian Children at School (note 1 above) and Adams, Education for Extinction (note 1 above).
15. Deborah Brandt, "Accumulating Literacies" College English 57 (1995): 666.
16. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 4.
17. Thomas J. Morgan, Pipe of Peace, 29 May 1891, 1.
18. See Wilma Daddario, "They Get Milk Practically Every Day: The Genoa Industrial Indian School, 1884-1934," Nebraska History (spring 1992): 2-11; Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, Glimpses of Life at the Genoa Industrial Indian School 1884-1934, (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Historical Board, 1982); Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, "The Genoa Indian School,"NEBRASKAland Magazine, January/February 1984, 98-99.
19. See Wilma Daddario, "They Get Milk Practically Every Day: The Genoa Industrial Indian School, 1884-1934," Nebraska History (spring 1992): 2-11; Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, Glimpses of Life at the Genoa Industrial Indian School 1884-1934, (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Historical Board, 1982); Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, "The Genoa Indian School,"NEBRASKAland Magazine, January/February 1984, 98-99.
20. See Wilma Daddario, "They Get Milk Practically Every Day: The Genoa Industrial Indian School, 1884-1934," Nebraska History (spring 1992): 2-11; Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, Glimpses of Life at the Genoa Industrial Indian School 1884-1934, (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Historical Board, 1982); Ronald C. Naugle and Nancy Svoboda Ledford, "The Genoa Indian School,"NEBRASKAland Magazine, January/February 1984, 98-99.
21. Horace Chase, United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, Reports of the Superintendents of Schools to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1888).
22. Pipe of Peace, 17 April 1891, 3.
23. Pipe of Peace, 28 August 1891, 1.
24. Thomas Jefferson Morgan, "Indian Grammar, Primary and Day Schools: The Purposes of the Government Explained," Pamphlets in American History (Carlisle, Penn.: Government Indian Industrial School, 1889), 2.
25. See Mary Godolphin, Robinson Crusoe in Words of One Syllable (New York: McLoughlin Brothers, 1880). This text is literally written all in words of one syllable with the exception of the proper names "Xury" and "Friday" and the illustration titles.
26. United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, Reports of the Superintendents of Schools to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886), p. 13.
27. Chase, Reports of the Superintendents (note 10 above), p. 13.
28. Pipe of Peace, 31 July 1891, 3.
29. Pipe of Peace, 28 August 1891, 1.
30. Genoa Indian School 1913 School Calendar (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Indian School Press, 1913); Genoa Indian School Handbook 1931-1932 (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Indian School Press, 1931).
31. Genoa Indian School 1913 School Calendar (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Indian School Press, 1913); Genoa Indian School Handbook 1931-1932 (Genoa, Nebr.: Genoa Indian School Press, 1931).
32. Taped interview, Audiocassette Transcript Tape 21, Genoa Indian School Project, May-November 1985, Genoa Industrial School Historical Foundation, Genoa, Nebraska.
33. Marianna Burgess, Stiya: A Carlisle Indian Girl at Home, (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1891); Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1884).
34. Marianna Burgess, Stiya: A Carlisle Indian Girl at Home, (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1891); Helen Hunt Jackson, Ramona, 2 vols. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1884).
35. "An Extract from Friend's Intelligencer (Philadelphia)," Indian News, December 1915, 2; "Interesting Visitors," Indian News, November 1915, 14.
36. "An Extract from Friend's Intelligencer (Philadelphia)," Indian News, December 1915, 2; "Interesting Visitors," Indian News, November 1915, 14.
37. Pipe of Peace, 22 May 1891, 3.
38. Pipe of Peace, 5 June 1891, 3.
39. Morgan, "Indian Grammar" (note 13 above), p. 2.
40. Burgess, Stiya (note 21 above), p. 1.
41. Samuel Tappan, United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, Reports of the Superintendents of Schools to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1885).
42. United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, Reports of the Superintendents of Schools to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1887).
43. Burgess, Stiya (note 21 above), preface.
44. Ibid., p. 19.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Lonna M. Malmsheimer, "Imitation White Man: Images of Transformation at the Carlisle Indian School," Studies in Visual Communication 11 (fall 1985): 54.
48. Sam J. Bordeaux, "A Letter from Sam," Pipe of Peace, 4 September 1891, 2.
49. Jackson, Ramona (note 21 above), p. 19.
50. Carlyle Channing Davis and William A. Alderson, The True Story of Ramona, (New York: Dodge, 1914), p.15.
51. Indian News, January 1907, 5.
52. Valerie Sherer Mathes, "Helen Hunt Jackson as Power Broker," Between Indian and White Worlds, Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), pp. 140-57.
53. See William T. Hagan, The Indian Rights Association (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1985); Valerie Sherer Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
54. See William T. Hagan, The Indian Rights Association (Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1985); Valerie Sherer Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
55. Sherer Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson, p. 81.
56. Taped interview, Genoa Indian School Project (note 20 above).
57. Sherer Mathes, Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy (note 39 above), pp. 81-83.
58. Ida Wall, "Victoria Society,"Indian News, April 1915, 12.
59. "The Originals of Mrs. Jackson's Ramona," Indian News, May/June 1918, 16.
60. "Pupils' Classroom Work," Indian News, May 1908, 2 (subsequent references refer to specific students' work).
61. Ida McNamara (note 45 above), p. 17.
62. Zoe Lamson (note 45 above), p. 16.
63. Thomas Come Last (note 45 above), pp. 16-17.
64. The Santee Word Carrier or Iapi oaye was published by the Santee Training Normal School "for the Dakota mission, in the interest of schools and missions among the Indians." Thomas Williamson and Stephen R. Riggs were missionaries to the Dakota who published Dakota Wowapi Wakan or The Holy Bible in the Language of Dakota (New York: American Bible Society, 1887).
65. Martin Vallie (note 45 above), p. 19.
66. Mary Rutledge (note 45 above), pp. 17-18.
67. Rutledge (note 45 above), p.17.
68. Grace Lamson (note 45 above), p. 19.
69. Lamson (note 45 above), p. 19.
70. See student letters accompanied by a letter from Superintendent Bogard, 20 October 1931, Genoa Indian School archives.
71. See "Rules for Letter Writing," Indian News, April 1917, 23. The students' letters violated two rules in particular: (1) "Don't write anything that has the least semblance of inflicting punishment or of encroaching in any other way on the proper prerogative of any other bureau or office" and (2) "Don't write anything quarrelsome."
72. Iva Valliere, to federal Indian Commissioner C. H. Burke, 4 September 1992, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers File 820 72150, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
73. Sam B. Davis, to federal Indian Commisioner, 18 September 1922, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
74. Luke Goings, to federal Indian Commissioner Chas H. Burke, 17 August 1921, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
75. Sam B. Davis, to federal Indian Commissioner, 30 August 1921, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers File 825 6850, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
76. Stanford Whitewater, former Genoa Indian School student, interview with author, 2 August 1996.
77. R. G. Valentine, to Sam B. Davis, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers File 154 20808, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
78. Donald St. Byr and Ben Sny Sr., petition to federal Indian commissioner, 3 July 1923, Bureau of Indian Affairs Papers File 154 11300, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
79. See David Dejong, Promises of the Past: A History of Indian Education in the United States (Golden, Colo: North American Press, 1993), pp. 120-28.
80. Whitewater interview (note 61 above).
81. Noah White, "Genoa School Reunion Meant Teepees and Beat of Drums," Lincoln Journal Star, 8 June 1975, 2B.
82. Whitewater interview (note 61 above).
83. Leonard Lowe, "Boyhood Friends Recall Genoa Indian School Days," Genoa Leader Times Special Edition Souvenir Issue, 23 April 1997 (originally published 14 February 1991).
84. Sidney Byrd, "Rabbit Runners and Indian Boarding Schools," Genoa Leader Times, Special Edition Souvenir Issues, 23 April 1997 (originally published March 1991), 3.69.