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Volumn 22, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 441-446

The price of German unity: The role of economic aid in the German-Soviet negotiations

(1)  Newnham, Randall a  

a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 0039034087     PISSN: 01497952     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1432268     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (12)

References (82)
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    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1994) Post-Soviet Affairs , vol.10 , pp. 197-230
    • Adomeit, H.1
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    • Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1994) The Rush to German Unity
    • Jarausch, K.1
  • 3
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1992) Die Gestaltung der Deutschen Einheit
    • Jesse, E.1    Mitter, A.2
  • 4
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1991) Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die Internationalen Aspekte
    • Kaiser, K.1
  • 5
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1993) Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification
    • James Mc Adams, A.1
  • 6
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • University Park: Penn State Press
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1993) German Unification in the European Context
    • Merkl, P.1
  • 7
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • New York: St. Martin's Press
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1992) The Diplomacy of German Unification
    • Szabo, S.1
  • 8
    • 0040016533 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Harvard University Press
    • Among the many works which could be cited are Hannes Adomeit, "Gorbachev, German Unification and the Collapse of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs 10 (1994), 197-230; Konrad Jarausch, The Rush to German Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Eckhard Jesse and Armin Mitter, eds., Die Gestaltung der deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, 1992); Karl Kaiser, Deutschlands Vereinigung: Die internationalen Aspekte (Bergisch Gladbach: Bastei Lubbe, 1991); A. James Mc Adams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Peter Merkl, German Unification in the European Context (University Park: Penn State Press, 1993); Stephen Szabo, The Diplomacy of German Unification (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992); and Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
    • (1995) Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft
    • Zelikow, P.1    Rice, C.2
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    • 0039424198 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is of course also true that West German economic strength played a large role in hastening the collapse of the GDR and in ensuring that the inter-German talks over unification took part largely on Bonn's terms. The history of the inter-German relations would also make a fascinating study in the role of economic influence - sometimes used intentionally, at other times simply as an underlying factor which drove the unification process forward.
  • 11
    • 0003653875 scopus 로고
    • New York: Basic Books
    • For an overall discussion of the concept of the "trading state," see Richard Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State (New York: Basic Books, 1986). For an application of this concept to Germany, see Hans Maull, "Germany and Japan: The New Civilian Powers," Foreign Affairs 69 (Winter 1990-91), 91-106.
    • (1986) The Rise of the Trading State
    • Rosecrance, R.1
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    • Germany and Japan: The new civilian powers
    • Winter
    • For an overall discussion of the concept of the "trading state," see Richard Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State (New York: Basic Books, 1986). For an application of this concept to Germany, see Hans Maull, "Germany and Japan: The New Civilian Powers," Foreign Affairs 69 (Winter 1990-91), 91-106.
    • (1990) Foreign Affairs , vol.69 , pp. 91-106
    • Maull, H.1
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    • Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press
    • Andrei Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), 180. Among the many other works which allude to German economic influence in passing see for example Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe 's Name (New York: Random House, 1993), and Horst Teltschik, 329 Tage: Innenansichten der Einigung (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1991).
    • (1997) The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe , pp. 180
    • Markovits, A.1    Reich, S.2
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    • New York: Random House
    • Andrei Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), 180. Among the many other works which allude to German economic influence in passing see for example Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe 's Name (New York: Random House, 1993), and Horst Teltschik, 329 Tage: Innenansichten der Einigung (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1991).
    • (1993) In Europe 's Name
    • Ash, T.G.1
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    • Berlin: Siedler Verlag
    • Andrei Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), 180. Among the many other works which allude to German economic influence in passing see for example Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe 's Name (New York: Random House, 1993), and Horst Teltschik, 329 Tage: Innenansichten der Einigung (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1991).
    • (1991) 329 Tage: Innenansichten der Einigung
    • Teltschik, H.1
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    • Berkeley: University of California Press
    • Works focusing directly on Germany's economic influence on the weaker East European states include Albert Hirschman's classic study of German economic linkage in the 1930s, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patricia Davis and Peter Dombrowski, "Appetite of the Wolf: German Foreign Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe," German Politics 6 (1997), 1-22; Robert Spaulding, Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn, 1997); and Patricia Davis, The Art of Economic Persuasion (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
    • (1945) National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade
    • Hirschman, A.1
  • 17
    • 0038993764 scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
    • Works focusing directly on Germany's economic influence on the weaker East European states include Albert Hirschman's classic study of German economic linkage in the 1930s, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patricia Davis and Peter Dombrowski, "Appetite of the Wolf: German Foreign Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe," German Politics 6 (1997), 1-22; Robert Spaulding, Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn, 1997); and Patricia Davis, The Art of Economic Persuasion (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
    • (1981) From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980
    • Stent, A.1
  • 18
    • 84937270016 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Appetite of the wolf: German foreign assistance for central and Eastern Europe
    • Works focusing directly on Germany's economic influence on the weaker East European states include Albert Hirschman's classic study of German economic linkage in the 1930s, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patricia Davis and Peter Dombrowski, "Appetite of the Wolf: German Foreign Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe," German Politics 6 (1997), 1-22; Robert Spaulding, Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn, 1997); and Patricia Davis, The Art of Economic Persuasion (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
    • (1997) German Politics , vol.6 , pp. 1-22
    • Davis, P.1    Dombrowski, P.2
  • 19
    • 0040609594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Providence: Berghahn
    • Works focusing directly on Germany's economic influence on the weaker East European states include Albert Hirschman's classic study of German economic linkage in the 1930s, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patricia Davis and Peter Dombrowski, "Appetite of the Wolf: German Foreign Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe," German Politics 6 (1997), 1-22; Robert Spaulding, Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn, 1997); and Patricia Davis, The Art of Economic Persuasion (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
    • (1997) Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer
    • Spaulding, R.1
  • 20
    • 0040016550 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
    • Works focusing directly on Germany's economic influence on the weaker East European states include Albert Hirschman's classic study of German economic linkage in the 1930s, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1945); Angela Stent, From Embargo to Ostpolitik: The Political Economy of West German-Soviet Relations, 1955-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patricia Davis and Peter Dombrowski, "Appetite of the Wolf: German Foreign Assistance for Central and Eastern Europe," German Politics 6 (1997), 1-22; Robert Spaulding, Osthandel and Ostpolitik: German Foreign Trade Policies in Eastern Europe from Bismarck to Adenauer (Providence: Berghahn, 1997); and Patricia Davis, The Art of Economic Persuasion (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999).
    • (1999) The Art of Economic Persuasion
    • Davis, P.1
  • 21
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    • German foreign policy after unification: The end of cheque book diplomacy?
    • January
    • James Sperling, "German Foreign Policy After Unification: The End of Cheque Book Diplomacy?" West European Politics 17 (January 1994), 73-97.
    • (1994) West European Politics , vol.17 , pp. 73-97
    • Sperling, J.1
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    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • For an overview of literature on both negative and positive economic sanctions see the excellent bibliography in David Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), as well as the more recent review article by Michael Mastanduno, "Economics and Security in Statecraft and Scholarship," International Organization 52 (Autumn 1998), 825-54.
    • (1985) Economic Statecraft
    • Baldwin, D.1
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    • Economics and security in statecraft and scholarship
    • Autumn
    • For an overview of literature on both negative and positive economic sanctions see the excellent bibliography in David Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), as well as the more recent review article by Michael Mastanduno, "Economics and Security in Statecraft and Scholarship," International Organization 52 (Autumn 1998), 825-54.
    • (1998) International Organization , vol.52 , pp. 825-854
    • Mastanduno, M.1
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    • Trade dependence and foreign policy compliance: A longitudinal analysis
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1980) International Studies Quarterly , vol.24 , pp. 191-222
    • Richardson, N.1    Kegley, C.2
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    • Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1994) Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade
    • Gowa, J.1
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    • 0031286126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alliances, preferential trading arrangements and international trade
    • March
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1997) American Political Science Review , vol.91 , pp. 94-107
    • Mansfield, E.1    Bronson, R.2
  • 27
    • 0039424195 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Grand strategy and foreign economic policy: British grand strategy in the 1930s
    • July
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1998) World Politics , vol.50 , pp. 582-616
    • Skålnes, L.1
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    • 0029729795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trade and technology incentives and bilateral cooperation
    • March
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1996) International Studies Quarterly , vol.40 , pp. 77-106
    • Long, W.1
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    • Boulder: Lynne Rienner
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1995) National Interest and Foreign Aid
    • Hook, S.1
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    • 0026330592 scopus 로고
    • U.S. Foreign aid and UN voting: Did Reagan's linkage strategy buy deference or defiance?
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1991) International Studies Quarterly , vol.35 , pp. 295-312
    • Kegley, C.1    Hook, S.2
  • 31
    • 84984716908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Foreign aid and recipient voting behavior in the UN, 1990-1995
    • Toronto
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1997) International Studies Association Conference
    • Linger, M.1
  • 32
    • 84937285221 scopus 로고
    • U.S. economic aid and political repression: An empirical evaluation of U.S. foreign policy
    • September
    • The literature on trade incentives includes such works as N. Richardson and C. Kegley, "Trade Dependence and Foreign Policy Compliance: A Longitudinal Analysis," International Studies Quarterly 24 (1980), 191-222; Joanne Gowa, Allies, Adversaries, and International Trade (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Edward Mansfield and Rachel Bronson, "Alliances, Preferential Trading Arrangements and International Trade," American Political Science Review 91 (March 1997), 94-107; and Lars Skålnes, "Grand Strategy and Foreign Economic Policy: British Grand Strategy in the 1930s," World Politics 50 (July 1998), 582-616. On technology incentives, see for example William Long, "Trade and Technology Incentives and Bilateral Cooperation," International Studies Quarterly 40 (March 1996), 77-106. On foreign aid conditionality as a policy tool, see for example Steven Hook, National Interest and Foreign Aid (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995). On the question of links between foreign aid and UN voting, see Charles Kegley and Steven Hook, "U.S. Foreign Aid and UN Voting: Did Reagan's Linkage Strategy Buy Deference or Defiance?" International Studies Quarterly 35 (1991), 295-312, and Marianne Linger, "Foreign Aid and Recipient Voting Behavior in the UN, 1990-1995" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, 1997, Toronto). On aid as a tool for promoting democracy and human rights, see for example Patrick Regan, "U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy," Political Research Quarterly 48 (September 1995), 613-28.
    • (1995) Political Research Quarterly , vol.48 , pp. 613-628
    • Regan, P.1
  • 33
    • 85050841892 scopus 로고
    • States, firms, and diplomacy
    • January
    • See, for example, Susan Strange, "States, Firms, and Diplomacy," International Affairs 68 (January 1992), 1-15.
    • (1992) International Affairs , vol.68 , pp. 1-15
    • Strange, S.1
  • 34
    • 0004527546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office
    • Some recent economic figures help to make this clear. Germany's GNP was estimated at 1.7 trillion dollars in 1996, while Russia's was about 767 billion. (Figures from CIA World Factbook [Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997].) Bilateral trade is far more important to the Soviet/Russian side than to the Germans. In 1991, for example, the year of the changeover from the USSR to an independent Russia, trade with Germany accounted for over 15 percent of all CIS trade (twice the figure of any other partner). Yet for Germany, trade with the CIS amounted to only about 2 percent of its total trade (Statistisches Jahrbuch der Bundesrepublik Deutschland[Bonn: Statistisches Bundesamt, 1992], and own calculations). Since this time, with the total collapse of the CMEA trading bloc, Germany's role in trade with Russia has increased still further. Figures for 1870, 1913, 1928, or 1970 are similar - in all cases Germany had a larger GNP than Russia (and a far larger GNP per capita). It was generally Russia's leading trading partner, and had a larger share of world trade, meaning that any given volume of bilateral trade was less important for Germany than for Russia. Additionally, in all of these periods Germany was financially stronger, enjoyed a technological advantage, and so on.
    • (1997) CIA World Factbook
  • 35
    • 0342803767 scopus 로고
    • Bonn: Statistisches Bundesamt
    • Some recent economic figures help to make this clear. Germany's GNP was estimated at 1.7 trillion dollars in 1996, while Russia's was about 767 billion. (Figures from CIA World Factbook [Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997].) Bilateral trade is far more important to the Soviet/Russian side than to the Germans. In 1991, for example, the year of the changeover from the USSR to an independent Russia, trade with Germany accounted for over 15 percent of all CIS trade (twice the figure of any other partner). Yet for Germany, trade with the CIS amounted to only about 2 percent of its total trade (Statistisches Jahrbuch der Bundesrepublik Deutschland[Bonn: Statistisches Bundesamt, 1992], and own calculations). Since this time, with the total collapse of the CMEA trading bloc, Germany's role in trade with Russia has increased still further. Figures for 1870, 1913, 1928, or 1970 are similar -in all cases Germany had a larger GNP than Russia (and a far larger GNP per capita). It was generally Russia's leading trading partner, and had a larger share of world trade, meaning that any given volume of bilateral trade was less important for Germany than for Russia. Additionally, in all of these periods Germany was financially stronger, enjoyed a technological advantage, and so on.
    • (1992) Statistisches Jahrbuch der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
  • 36
  • 37
    • 0040016537 scopus 로고
    • Entwicklungshilfe
    • October 28
    • "Entwicklungshilfe," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeiting (October 28 1988), 13.
    • (1988) Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeiting , pp. 13
  • 38
    • 0039424194 scopus 로고
    • Berlin: Siedler Verlag
    • Text of speech in Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Unterwegs zur Einheit (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1991), 137-50.
    • (1991) Unterwegs zur Einheit , pp. 137-150
    • Genscher, H.-D.1
  • 41
    • 0040016549 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Interestingly. Germany created the world's first system of government-supported export credits 1920s to support its trade with the Soviet Union. The system reappeared after the Second World War as the Hermes program. Private banks actually issue the loans to the purchasing country, covering payments to German firms for exports. The German goverment agrees to repay the loans if the recipient defaults, insulating both banks and exporters from any risk. While in theory the system is designed only to encourage German exports, in factit is often used to reward or punish "target" countries. Until the late 1960s the USSR was generally denied Hermes guarantees, which greatly hampered German-Soviet trade; under Gorbachev, in contrast, the Soviets were granted Hermes credits under unusually generous terms.
  • 42
    • 0038831541 scopus 로고
    • Boulder: Westview Press
    • Of particular importance were several working papers by Vyacheslav Dashichev, a noted Soviet academic specialist on Germany. See the discussion in Robin Laird, The Soviets, Germany, and the New Europe (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 136-40.
    • (1991) The Soviets, Germany, and the New Europe , pp. 136-140
    • Laird, R.1
  • 43
    • 0040609556 scopus 로고
    • quoted in Ekkehard Kuhn, Bonn: Bouvier Verlag
    • Kohl quoted in Ekkehard Kuhn, Gorbatshow und die Deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag, 1993), 33-34. Gorbachev, who was also interviewed for Kuhn's book, essentially confirms the chancellor's account of the conversation in ibid., 35-36.
    • (1993) Gorbatshow und die Deutschen Einheit , pp. 33-34
    • Kohl1
  • 44
    • 0040609571 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bonn: Bouvier Verlag
    • Kohl quoted in Ekkehard Kuhn, Gorbatshow und die Deutschen Einheit (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag, 1993), 33-34. Gorbachev, who was also interviewed for Kuhn's book, essentially confirms the chancellor's account of the conversation in ibid., 35-36.
    • Gorbatshow und die Deutschen Einheit , pp. 35-36
  • 46
    • 0040609572 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Author's interview with Nikolai Portugalov, Moscow, April 1994. Portugalov echoes these comments in Kuhn, 9-10.
  • 47
    • 0038831547 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teltschik, 100, 114
    • Teltschik, 100, 114.
  • 48
    • 0040609557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Garton Ash, 350
    • Garton Ash, 350.
  • 50
    • 0039424196 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teltschik, 243-44
    • Teltschik, 243-44.
  • 51
    • 0038831545 scopus 로고
    • Bonn, Money, Moscow, and unity
    • May 21
    • In fact, the situation had reached the point where economic experts urged that credits be stopped. See "Bonn, Money, Moscow, and Unity," AP Wire Report (May 21, 1990).
    • (1990) AP Wire Report
  • 52
    • 0038831537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See appendix. Many of the transactions involved outright fraud. For example, a Soviet firm would order a worthless product from a GDR firm at inflated prices, and then receive aportion of the resulting DM windfall as a kickback.
  • 53
    • 0040016552 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teltschik, 287-88
    • The discussions at the Dublin summit of EC leaders are reported in Teltschik, 287-88. For details of the G-7 meeting in Houston, see ibid., 305-10, and Bulletin of the German Federal Press and Information Service, Nr. 91 (July 13, 1991). When the EC did eventually agree to aid the USSR as part of its PHARE program, the Germans were quick to claim credit. As seen in the appendix, they count their 28 percent share of the EC aid as part of the German bilateral aid to Moscow.
  • 54
    • 0038831530 scopus 로고
    • July 13
    • The discussions at the Dublin summit of EC leaders are reported in Teltschik, 287-88. For details of the G-7 meeting in Houston, see ibid., 305-10, and Bulletin of the German Federal Press and Information Service, Nr. 91 (July 13, 1991). When the EC did eventually agree to aid the USSR as part of its PHARE program, the Germans were quick to claim credit. As seen in the appendix, they count their 28 percent share of the EC aid as part of the German bilateral aid to Moscow.
    • (1991) Bulletin of the German Federal Press and Information Service , vol.91
  • 55
    • 0003967109 scopus 로고
    • July 21
    • The Economist, July 21, 1990, 47.
    • (1990) The Economist , pp. 47
  • 56
    • 0040609574 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • [Economic linkage] was one of the great unspokens of the history of German unification. No one wanted to discuss it openly, fearing that if the impression were created that the germans were buying the GDR, it would undermine Gorbachev's already precarious position
    • As Szabo notes, "[Economic linkage] was one of the Great Unspokens of the history of German unification. No one wanted to discuss it openly, fearing that if the impression were created that the Germans were buying the GDR, it would undermine Gorbachev's already precarious position" Szabo, 93.
    • Szabo , pp. 93
    • Szabo1
  • 57
    • 0040609575 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Teltschik, 321
    • See ibid., 100, and Teltschik, 321.
    • Szabo , pp. 100
  • 59
    • 0039424188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Teltschik, 336
    • Teltschik, 336.
  • 60
    • 0040016543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Army for sale?' The end of the western group of forces
    • Theodore Karasik, ed., Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, forthcoming
    • For a complete discussion of the role of economic aid in the withdrawal of Soviet forces from the GDR, see Randall Newnham, "'Army for Sale?' The End of the Western Group of Forces," in Theodore Karasik, ed., Russia and Eurasia Armed Forces Review Annual, 1992-93 (Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, forthcoming).
    • Russia and Eurasia Armed Forces Review Annual, 1992-93
    • Newnham, R.1
  • 61
    • 0038831548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dollar diplomacy and nuclear non-proliferation: The case of nunn-lugar
    • San Diego
    • A prime example is the recent Nunn-Lugar plan, which used American funds to pay for the dismantling of nuclear missiles, improving security for stockpiles of nuclear material, and finding employment for nuclear scientists in the former USSR. See Jason Ellis, "Dollar Diplomacy and Nuclear Non-Proliferation: The Case of Nunn-Lugar" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, San Diego, 1996). An analogous case is the U.S.-North Korean linkage deal of 1994, in which Pyongyang agreed to freeze its nuclear program in return for economic and technical aid valued at about $4.5 billion. See the description in Barry K. Gills, Korea Versus Korea: A Case of Contested Legitimacy (London: Routledge, 1996), 234-53.
    • (1996) International Studies Association Conference
    • Ellis, J.1
  • 62
    • 0012805444 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • London: Routledge
    • A prime example is the recent Nunn-Lugar plan, which used American funds to pay for the dismantling of nuclear missiles, improving security for stockpiles of nuclear material, and finding employment for nuclear scientists in the former USSR. See Jason Ellis, "Dollar Diplomacy and Nuclear Non-Proliferation: The Case of Nunn-Lugar" (paper presented at International Studies Association conference, San Diego, 1996). An analogous case is the U.S.-North Korean linkage deal of 1994, in which Pyongyang agreed to freeze its nuclear program in return for economic and technical aid valued at about $4.5 billion. See the description in Barry K. Gills, Korea Versus Korea: A Case of Contested Legitimacy (London: Routledge, 1996), 234-53.
    • (1996) Korea Versus Korea: A Case of Contested Legitimacy , pp. 234-253
    • Gills, B.K.1
  • 63
    • 0038831546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a description of these crucial conversations, see Teltschik, 359-63. For the final text of the Überleitungsabkommen, see Europa-Archiv 3 (1991), D63-D67. The aid offered by Kohl eventually included 12 billion DM in direct payments: 3 billion DM for maintenence costs for the troops in the ex-GDR; 1 billion DM to cover part of their withdrawal costs; 7.8 billion for building housing for troops returning to the USSR; and 200 million for job retraining for them. Kohl also offered Gorbachev a 3 billion DM "loan" to the USSR to cover the Soviet share of the withdrawal costs. There is no guarantee that this loan -and the interest payments associated with it - will ever be repaid.
    • Überleitungsabkommen , pp. 359-363
  • 64
    • 4243796296 scopus 로고
    • For a description of these crucial conversations, see Teltschik, 359-63. For the final text of the Überleitungsabkommen, see Europa-Archiv 3 (1991), D63-D67. The aid offered by Kohl eventually included 12 billion DM in direct payments: 3 billion DM for maintenence costs for the troops in the ex-GDR; 1 billion DM to cover part of their withdrawal costs; 7.8 billion for building housing for troops returning to the USSR; and 200 million for job retraining for them. Kohl also offered Gorbachev a 3 billion DM "loan" to the USSR to cover the Soviet share of the withdrawal costs. There is no guarantee that this loan -and the interest payments associated with it - will ever be repaid.
    • (1991) Europa-Archiv , vol.3
  • 65
    • 0040016532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Germans agreed to ship 255,000 tons of meat and 60,000 tons of butter to the USSR. See the description in Teltschik, 355, 360-61.
  • 66
    • 25544471181 scopus 로고
    • In Article 20 of the German-Soviet friendship and cooperation treaty, negotiated as part of the unification package, both sides agreed that "they will help each other to develop cooperation with international, in particular European, organizations and institutions of which one side is a member, if the other side expresses a relevant interest." Text in Europa Archiv 3 (1991), D85-D90.
    • (1991) Europa Archiv , vol.3
  • 67
    • 0040609581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • At a meeting in New York City on October 1, 1990, the foreign ministers of the Four Powers agreed to suspend their sovereign rights over Germany once the nation was reunified on October 3. However, these rights were still formally in existence until the 2+4 Agreement was ratified on March 15, 1991. This distinction, neglected by most in the West, was very important to Germany and the USSR.
  • 68
    • 0040016536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kvitsinsky, 66-69
    • Kvitsinsky, 66-69.
  • 69
    • 0038831553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quote is from then-Deputy Foreign Minister Yuli Kvitsinsky. Some members of the Soviet parliament had demanded up to two trillion DM in reparations. Ibid., 83-85.
  • 70
    • 0040609577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The special conditions were as follows: No cash down-payments were needed from Soviet purchasers (previously, a down payment of 15 percent had been standard). The credits would run for 10 years, not 8 1/2 as had been the case before. Finally, no payments would be required for the first 3 years, while before no "grace years" had been permitted. All three provisions violated OECD rules. Author's interview, German Ministry of Economics, June 1994.
  • 71
    • 0039424193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kvitsinsky 98 The role of the military in this case reflects a broader phenomenon observed by William Long and others. Economic aid does not benefit a whole country equally; its fruits are captured by certain political or economic groups, which then tend to become natural "allies" of the state which provided the aid, lobbying their own governments to make political concessions to the aiding state. In a recent article, Long (see note 9), describes this process in a very different setting, examining U.S. aid to Swedish nuclear power companies in the 1960s In return for this aid for peaceful nuclear development, the companies lobbied the Swedish government to abandon plans for an independent Swedish nuclear potential, which could have led to nuclear weapons.
  • 72
    • 0040609583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kvitsinsky, 100-101
    • Kvitsinsky, 100-101.
  • 74
    • 0038831558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • There were minor exceptions-for example, Germany continued a program which provided aid to the German minority community in Russia. Here again, German self-interest was paramount; Bonn hoped to reduce the flow of ethnic German immigrants to the Federal Republic by trying to create tolerable living conditions in Russia and the other former Soviet states. Germany has also - although with increasing reluctance - taken part in multilateral efforts to reschedule Soviet debt.
  • 76
    • 0040016544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See note 4
    • See note 4.
  • 77
    • 0040016535 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a comparison of the roots of German power and influence in the East during the 1870-1945 period and during the post-Cold War period see Randall Newnham, "Germany and Its Eastern Neighbors: Patterns of Continuity and Change," in Brigitte Schulz and Randall Newnham, eds., Unified Germany: Domestic Problems and Global Challenges(New York: Prentice Hall, forthcoming).
    • Germany and Its Eastern Neighbors: Patterns of Continuity and Change
    • Newnham, R.1
  • 78
    • 0038831544 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York: Prentice Hall, forthcoming
    • For a comparison of the roots of German power and influence in the East during the 1870-1945 period and during the post-Cold War period see Randall Newnham, "Germany and Its Eastern Neighbors: Patterns of Continuity and Change," in Brigitte Schulz and Randall Newnham, eds., Unified Germany: Domestic Problems and Global Challenges(New York: Prentice Hall, forthcoming).
    • Unified Germany: Domestic Problems and Global Challenges
    • Schulz, B.1    Newnham, R.2
  • 79
    • 0040609584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The existence of this phenomenon - what Markovits and Reich refer to as an "ideology of reticence" - and its effects on German foreign policy are analyzed in-depth in their excellent book (see note 5; cite here from xii).
  • 81
    • 0040609582 scopus 로고
    • Author's interview, Polish Foreign Ministry, Warsaw, April
    • Author's interview, Polish Foreign Ministry, Warsaw, April 1994.
    • (1994)
  • 82
    • 0039424182 scopus 로고
    • Data as of July 21, Hermes fund for 1994 (2.5 billion DM) not included
    • "Antwort der Bundesregierung," 55-56. Data as of July 21, 1993. Hermes fund for 1994 (2.5 billion DM) not included.
    • (1993) Antwort der Bundesregierung , pp. 55-56


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