Resisting the historical locations of Tunisian women musicians

Gender and History

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 336-365

  Lengel, Laura ^a,b  

^a American Institute of Maghreb Studies   (Tunisia)

^b American Institute of Maghreb Studies   (Morocco)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039029221     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.00187     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1992); W. Walther, Women in Islam: From Medieval to Modern Times (Markus Wiener Publishing, Princeton, NJ, 1993); Mona Hamman, 'Women and Islam', MERIP Reports 95 (1981); Naila Minai, Women in Islam: Tradition and Transformation in the Middle East (John Murray, London, 1981).
2. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1992); W. Walther, Women in Islam: From Medieval to Modern Times (Markus Wiener Publishing, Princeton, NJ, 1993); Mona Hamman, 'Women and Islam', MERIP Reports 95 (1981); Naila Minai, Women in Islam: Tradition and Transformation in the Middle East (John Murray, London, 1981).
3. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1992); W. Walther, Women in Islam: From Medieval to Modern Times (Markus Wiener Publishing, Princeton, NJ, 1993); Mona Hamman, 'Women and Islam', MERIP Reports 95 (1981); Naila Minai, Women in Islam: Tradition and Transformation in the Middle East (John Murray, London, 1981).
4. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1992); W. Walther, Women in Islam: From Medieval to Modern Times (Markus Wiener Publishing, Princeton, NJ, 1993); Mona Hamman, 'Women and Islam', MERIP Reports 95 (1981); Naila Minai, Women in Islam: Tradition and Transformation in the Middle East (John Murray, London, 1981).
5. Juliette Minces, The House of Obedience: Women in Arab Society (Zed Press, London, 1980).
6. For a fuller discussion of the constitution of 'The Arab Woman' as monolithic subject, please see Laura Lengel, 'Researching the "Other": Methodological Considerations of Feminist Ethnography', Journal of Communication Inquiry, 22/3 (1998), pp. 229-50.
7. Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze: Sex and Gender in the Discourses of French North Africa', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 212-13.
8. Judith E. Tucker (ed.), Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, Indiana, 1991); Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1994).
9. Judith E. Tucker (ed.), Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, Indiana, 1991); Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1994).
10. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, 'Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses', in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo and Lourdes Torres (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana, 1991), p. 51.
11. Nancy Rose Hunt, Introduction to 'Special Issue: Gendered Colonialisms in African History', Gender & History, 8 (1996), p. 324.
12. Julie Marcus, 'History, Anthropology and Gender: Turkish Women Past and Present', Gender & History, 4 (1992), pp. 147-73.
13. Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (Routledge, London and New York, 1996), p. 1.
14. Joanna de Groot, 'Gender, Discourse and Ideology in Iranian Studies: Towards a New Scholarship', in Gendering the Middle East: Emerging Perspectives, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (I. B. Taurus, London, 1996), p. 30. See also Deniz Kandiyoti, 'Contemporary Feminist Scholarship and Middle Eastern Studies', in Gendering the Middle East: Emerging Perspectives, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (I.B. Taurus, London, 1996), particularly pp. 4-7.
15. Joanna de Groot, 'Gender, Discourse and Ideology in Iranian Studies: Towards a New Scholarship', in Gendering the Middle East: Emerging Perspectives, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (I. B. Taurus, London, 1996), p. 30. See also Deniz Kandiyoti, 'Contemporary Feminist Scholarship and Middle Eastern Studies', in Gendering the Middle East: Emerging Perspectives, ed. Deniz Kandiyoti (I.B. Taurus, London, 1996), particularly pp. 4-7.
16. A. T. C. E., Women of Tunisia: Their Struggle and their Gains (Agence Tunisienne de Communication Exteriéure, Tunis, 1993); E. Chitioui Aouij, Les Droits de la Femme (SNIPE «La Presse», Tunis, 1992); Centre de Recherche, de Documentation et d'Information sur la Femme (CREDIF), Catalogue Collectif de la Documentation Femme, vol. 2 (République Tunisienne, Ministère de la Femme et de la Famille/Orbis Impression, Tunis, 1994); F. Kefi (ed.), Femme Mensuel Tunisien de la Femme Edité par l'Union Nationale de la Femme Tunisienne (AMP - La Charguia, Tunis, 1994); I. Melliti, 'Observatoire de la condition de la Femme en Tunisie', Correspondances, 26, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain (1995), pp. 24-9.
17. A. T. C. E., Women of Tunisia: Their Struggle and their Gains (Agence Tunisienne de Communication Exteriéure, Tunis, 1993); E. Chitioui Aouij, Les Droits de la Femme (SNIPE «La Presse», Tunis, 1992); Centre de Recherche, de Documentation et d'Information sur la Femme (CREDIF), Catalogue Collectif de la Documentation Femme, vol. 2 (République Tunisienne, Ministère de la Femme et de la Famille/Orbis Impression, Tunis, 1994); F. Kefi (ed.), Femme Mensuel Tunisien de la Femme Edité par l'Union Nationale de la Femme Tunisienne (AMP - La Charguia, Tunis, 1994); I. Melliti, 'Observatoire de la condition de la Femme en Tunisie', Correspondances, 26, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain (1995), pp. 24-9.
18. A. T. C. E., Women of Tunisia: Their Struggle and their Gains (Agence Tunisienne de Communication Exteriéure, Tunis, 1993); E. Chitioui Aouij, Les Droits de la Femme (SNIPE «La Presse», Tunis, 1992); Centre de Recherche, de Documentation et d'Information sur la Femme (CREDIF), Catalogue Collectif de la Documentation Femme, vol. 2 (République Tunisienne, Ministère de la Femme et de la Famille/Orbis Impression, Tunis, 1994); F. Kefi (ed.), Femme Mensuel Tunisien de la Femme Edité par l'Union Nationale de la Femme Tunisienne (AMP - La Charguia, Tunis, 1994); I. Melliti, 'Observatoire de la condition de la Femme en Tunisie', Correspondances, 26, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain (1995), pp. 24-9.
19. A. T. C. E., Women of Tunisia: Their Struggle and their Gains (Agence Tunisienne de Communication Exteriéure, Tunis, 1993); E. Chitioui Aouij, Les Droits de la Femme (SNIPE «La Presse», Tunis, 1992); Centre de Recherche, de Documentation et d'Information sur la Femme (CREDIF), Catalogue Collectif de la Documentation Femme, vol. 2 (République Tunisienne, Ministère de la Femme et de la Famille/Orbis Impression, Tunis, 1994); F. Kefi (ed.), Femme Mensuel Tunisien de la Femme Edité par l'Union Nationale de la Femme Tunisienne (AMP - La Charguia, Tunis, 1994); I. Melliti, 'Observatoire de la condition de la Femme en Tunisie', Correspondances, 26, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain (1995), pp. 24-9.
20. A. T. C. E., Women of Tunisia: Their Struggle and their Gains (Agence Tunisienne de Communication Exteriéure, Tunis, 1993); E. Chitioui Aouij, Les Droits de la Femme (SNIPE «La Presse», Tunis, 1992); Centre de Recherche, de Documentation et d'Information sur la Femme (CREDIF), Catalogue Collectif de la Documentation Femme, vol. 2 (République Tunisienne, Ministère de la Femme et de la Famille/Orbis Impression, Tunis, 1994); F. Kefi (ed.), Femme Mensuel Tunisien de la Femme Edité par l'Union Nationale de la Femme Tunisienne (AMP - La Charguia, Tunis, 1994); I. Melliti, 'Observatoire de la condition de la Femme en Tunisie', Correspondances, 26, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain (1995), pp. 24-9.
21. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
22. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
23. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
24. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
25. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
26. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
27. Amel Ben Aba, 'Clore pour Eclore, àLaube du Féminisme Tunisien', in Tunisiennes en Devenir, vol. 2, La Moitié Entière (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992), pp. 67-101; A. C. Chamari, La Femme et la Loi en Tunisie (United Nations University/Editions le Fennec, Casablanca, 1991); A. Ghanmi, Le Mouvement Féministe Tunisien: Témoignage sur l'autonomie et la pluralité du mouvement des femmes (1979-1989), (Chama Éditions, Berlin, 1993); Neïla Jrad, Mémoire de l'Oubli: Réflexion Critique sur les Expériences Féministes des Années Quatre-Vingt (Cérès/Enjeux, Tunis, 1995); Ilhem Marzouki, Le Mouvement des Femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et Politique (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1993); Aziza Medimegh Dargouth, 'La Femme Tunisienne: Pilier et Enjeu de la Democractie et du Développement', in Femmes, Culture et Société au Maghreb II: Femmes, Pouvoir Politique et Développement, ed. Rahma Bourqia, Mounira Charrad, Nany Gallagher (Afrique Orient, Casablanca, 1996), pp. 97-117; Malika Zamiti-Horchani, 'Tunisian Women, Their Rights and Their Ideas about These Rights', Women of the Mediterranean, ed. Monique Gadant (Zed Books Ltd., London, 1986), pp. 110-19.
28. Fatima Siddiqi, Professor of Linguistics, Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, 'Women and the Media', lecture presented at the Arab Language Institute in Fez, 21 May 1997.
29. Mervat Hatem, in her article 'Toward the Development of Post-Islamist and Post-Nationalist Feminist Discourses in the Middle East', in Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1991), pp. 30-31, notes that is important to consider that Arab feminists have critiqued the approaches of UN and governmental development agencies in their efforts to address the needs of Arab women. She also mentions women's non-governmental organisations which are counteracting the top-down and often male-dominated directives of development agencies, such as the Tunis Association of African Women Researchers, whose goal is to 'highlight the role of women in development … and create favorable gender focused development' (Society for International Development, 'Report on Middle East and North African Region: Tunis Symposium', 64th Governing Council Meeting, 17-18 November 1989, Document 1, p. 7, cited in Hatem, pp. 36, 47).
30. Mervat Hatem, in her article 'Toward the Development of Post-Islamist and Post-Nationalist Feminist Discourses in the Middle East', in Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1991), pp. 30-31, notes that is important to consider that Arab feminists have critiqued the approaches of UN and governmental development agencies in their efforts to address the needs of Arab women. She also mentions women's non-governmental organisations which are counteracting the top-down and often male-dominated directives of development agencies, such as the Tunis Association of African Women Researchers, whose goal is to 'highlight the role of women in development … and create favorable gender focused development' (Society for International Development, 'Report on Middle East and North African Region: Tunis Symposium', 64th Governing Council Meeting, 17-18 November 1989, Document 1, p. 7, cited in Hatem, pp. 36, 47).
31. Lynne Brydon and Sylvia Chant, Women in the Third World: Gender Issues in Rural and Urban Areas (Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1989), p. 26.
32. Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1995).
33. The author thanks Julia Clancy-Smith for her insightful commentary about class difference and women's role in colonial Tunisia.
34. For accounts of the complexity of French colonial discourses in North Africa, see, for instance, Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation (1881-1956) (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996); Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze'; Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The "Passionate Nomad" Reconsidered: A European Woman in L'Algerie Française (Isabelle Eberhart, 1877-1904)', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Indiana University Press, Indiana and Bloomington, 1992), pp. 61-78; Gilles Kepel, 'Self and Other: The Heart of the Franco-Arab Paradox', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 306-26.
35. For accounts of the complexity of French colonial discourses in North Africa, see, for instance, Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation (1881-1956) (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996); Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze'; Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The "Passionate Nomad" Reconsidered: A European Woman in L'Algerie Française (Isabelle Eberhart, 1877-1904)', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Indiana University Press, Indiana and Bloomington, 1992), pp. 61-78; Gilles Kepel, 'Self and Other: The Heart of the Franco-Arab Paradox', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 306-26.
36. For accounts of the complexity of French colonial discourses in North Africa, see, for instance, Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation (1881-1956) (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996); Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze'; Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The "Passionate Nomad" Reconsidered: A European Woman in L'Algerie Française (Isabelle Eberhart, 1877-1904)', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Indiana University Press, Indiana and Bloomington, 1992), pp. 61-78; Gilles Kepel, 'Self and Other: The Heart of the Franco-Arab Paradox', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 306-26.
37. For accounts of the complexity of French colonial discourses in North Africa, see, for instance, Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation (1881-1956) (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996); Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze'; Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The "Passionate Nomad" Reconsidered: A European Woman in L'Algerie Française (Isabelle Eberhart, 1877-1904)', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Indiana University Press, Indiana and Bloomington, 1992), pp. 61-78; Gilles Kepel, 'Self and Other: The Heart of the Franco-Arab Paradox', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 306-26.
38. For accounts of the complexity of French colonial discourses in North Africa, see, for instance, Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation (1881-1956) (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1996); Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The Colonial Gaze'; Julia Clancy-Smith, 'The "Passionate Nomad" Reconsidered: A European Woman in L'Algerie Française (Isabelle Eberhart, 1877-1904)', in Western Women and Imperialism: Complicity and Resistance, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri and Margaret Strobel (Indiana University Press, Indiana and Bloomington, 1992), pp. 61-78; Gilles Kepel, 'Self and Other: The Heart of the Franco-Arab Paradox', in Franco-Arab Encounters: Studies in Memory of David C. Gordon, ed. L. Carl Brown and Matthew S. Gordon (American University of Beirut, Beirut, 1996), pp. 306-26.
39. Scholarship concerning the important discussion about women taking place during the colonial period within Tunisian intellectual and activist communities are well documented. Cf. Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation; Garbi Chagrouch Roaudha, 'Tahar el Haddad, Med Salah B., Mara: deux représentations conflictuelles du statut de la femme dans la société', Memoire du Certificate d'Aptitude à la Recherche en Sociologue (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Tunis, Tunis, 1983); Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb: Sept décennies de lutte (Editions Eddif, Casablanca, 1996), particularly the section 'Tunisie, Le Féminin: Garantie de la stabilité sociale et instrument du politique'; Lilia Labidi and A. Zghal, 'Génération des années 30: La mémoire vivante des sujects de l'histoire', Cérès, Série Sociologue no. 11 (Cérès, Tunis, 1985); Ilhem Marzouki, 'Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie'. A broader discussion of modernisation in Islamic states can be found in Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Introduction, Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), pp. 1-3.
40. Scholarship concerning the important discussion about women taking place during the colonial period within Tunisian intellectual and activist communities are well documented. Cf. Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation; Garbi Chagrouch Roaudha, 'Tahar el Haddad, Med Salah B., Mara: deux représentations conflictuelles du statut de la femme dans la société', Memoire du Certificate d'Aptitude à la Recherche en Sociologue (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Tunis, Tunis, 1983); Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb: Sept décennies de lutte (Editions Eddif, Casablanca, 1996), particularly the section 'Tunisie, Le Féminin: Garantie de la stabilité sociale et instrument du politique'; Lilia Labidi and A. Zghal, 'Génération des années 30: La mémoire vivante des sujects de l'histoire', Cérès, Série Sociologue no. 11 (Cérès, Tunis, 1985); Ilhem Marzouki, 'Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie'. A broader discussion of modernisation in Islamic states can be found in Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Introduction, Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), pp. 1-3.
41. Scholarship concerning the important discussion about women taking place during the colonial period within Tunisian intellectual and activist communities are well documented. Cf. Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation; Garbi Chagrouch Roaudha, 'Tahar el Haddad, Med Salah B., Mara: deux représentations conflictuelles du statut de la femme dans la société', Memoire du Certificate d'Aptitude à la Recherche en Sociologue (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Tunis, Tunis, 1983); Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb: Sept décennies de lutte (Editions Eddif, Casablanca, 1996), particularly the section 'Tunisie, Le Féminin: Garantie de la stabilité sociale et instrument du politique'; Lilia Labidi and A. Zghal, 'Génération des années 30: La mémoire vivante des sujects de l'histoire', Cérès, Série Sociologue no. 11 (Cérès, Tunis, 1985); Ilhem Marzouki, 'Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie'. A broader discussion of modernisation in Islamic states can be found in Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Introduction, Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), pp. 1-3.
42. Scholarship concerning the important discussion about women taking place during the colonial period within Tunisian intellectual and activist communities are well documented. Cf. Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation; Garbi Chagrouch Roaudha, 'Tahar el Haddad, Med Salah B., Mara: deux représentations conflictuelles du statut de la femme dans la société', Memoire du Certificate d'Aptitude à la Recherche en Sociologue (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Tunis, Tunis, 1983); Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb: Sept décennies de lutte (Editions Eddif, Casablanca, 1996), particularly the section 'Tunisie, Le Féminin: Garantie de la stabilité sociale et instrument du politique'; Lilia Labidi and A. Zghal, 'Génération des années 30: La mémoire vivante des sujects de l'histoire', Cérès, Série Sociologue no. 11 (Cérès, Tunis, 1985); Ilhem Marzouki, 'Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie'. A broader discussion of modernisation in Islamic states can be found in Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Introduction, Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), pp. 1-3.
43. Scholarship concerning the important discussion about women taking place during the colonial period within Tunisian intellectual and activist communities are well documented. Cf. Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation; Garbi Chagrouch Roaudha, 'Tahar el Haddad, Med Salah B., Mara: deux représentations conflictuelles du statut de la femme dans la société', Memoire du Certificate d'Aptitude à la Recherche en Sociologue (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Tunis, Tunis, 1983); Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb: Sept décennies de lutte (Editions Eddif, Casablanca, 1996), particularly the section 'Tunisie, Le Féminin: Garantie de la stabilité sociale et instrument du politique'; Lilia Labidi and A. Zghal, 'Génération des années 30: La mémoire vivante des sujects de l'histoire', Cérès, Série Sociologue no. 11 (Cérès, Tunis, 1985); Ilhem Marzouki, 'Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie'. A broader discussion of modernisation in Islamic states can be found in Amira El Azhary Sonbol, Introduction, Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), pp. 1-3.
44. Mervat Hatem, 'Toward the Development of Post-Islamist and Post-Nationalist Feminist Discourses', pp. 38.
45. Mervat Hatem, 'Toward the Development of Post-Islamist and Post-Nationalist Feminist Discourses', pp. 38.
46. Mervat Hatem, 'Toward the Development of Post-Islamist and Post-Nationalist Feminist Discourses', pp. 38.
47. Zakya Daoud, Feminisme & Politique au Maghreb, pp. 46-7.
48. Mark A. Tessler with Janet Rogers and Daniel Schneider, 'Women's Emancipation in Tunisia', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1978), pp. 142-3.
49. Julia Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe: Women and Sexuality in France's North African Empire', in Women, the Family, and Divorce Laws in Islamic History, ed. Amira El Azhary Sonbol (Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, 1996), p. 53.
50. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53. For a related discussion on how French colonial discourse positioned 'the Algerian woman as the key symbol of the country's cultural identity', see Zeynep Çelik, 'Gendered Spaces in Colonial Algiers', in The Sex of Architecture, ed. Diana Agrest, Patricia Conway and Leslie Kanes Weisman (Harry N. Abrams Publishers, New York, 1996), p. 127, and Winifred Woodhull, Transformations of the Maghreb (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis and London, 1993), p. 19.
51. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53. For a related discussion on how French colonial discourse positioned 'the Algerian woman as the key symbol of the country's cultural identity', see Zeynep Çelik, 'Gendered Spaces in Colonial Algiers', in The Sex of Architecture, ed. Diana Agrest, Patricia Conway and Leslie Kanes Weisman (Harry N. Abrams Publishers, New York, 1996), p. 127, and Winifred Woodhull, Transformations of the Maghreb (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis and London, 1993), p. 19.
52. aClancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53. For a related discussion on how French colonial discourse positioned 'the Algerian woman as the key symbol of the country's cultural identity', see Zeynep Çelik, 'Gendered Spaces in Colonial Algiers', in The Sex of Architecture, ed. Diana Agrest, Patricia Conway and Leslie Kanes Weisman (Harry N. Abrams Publishers, New York, 1996), p. 127, and Winifred Woodhull, Transformations of the Maghreb (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis and London, 1993), p. 19.
53. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 59.
54. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 60.
55. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 62.
56. Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 63.
57. Lamia Ben Youssef, Lecturer, University of Tunis, personal interview, Tunis, 19 August 1994.
58. The author thanks Julia Clancy-Smith for her ideas about the influence of class difference on the public-private divide.
59. Zeynep Çelik, 'Gendered Spaces in Colonial Algiers', p. 138.
60. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society (Al Saqi, London, 1985), p. 137. See also C. Benard and E. Schlaffer, '"The Man in the Street": Why He Harasses', in Feminist Frontiers III, ed. L. Richardson and V. Taylor (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993), pp. 388-91; Monia Hejaiej, 'Women's Oral Narratives in Tunis' (unpub. PhD thesis, University of London, 1992); B. Pakizegi, 'Legal and Social Position of Iranian Women', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. L. Beck and N. Keddi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 224; W. G. Millward, 'Traditional Values and Social Change in Iran', Iranian Studies, 4 (1971), pp. 2-36.
61. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society (Al Saqi, London, 1985), p. 137. See also C. Benard and E. Schlaffer, '"The Man in the Street": Why He Harasses', in Feminist Frontiers III, ed. L. Richardson and V. Taylor (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993), pp. 388-91; Monia Hejaiej, 'Women's Oral Narratives in Tunis' (unpub. PhD thesis, University of London, 1992); B. Pakizegi, 'Legal and Social Position of Iranian Women', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. L. Beck and N. Keddi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 224; W. G. Millward, 'Traditional Values and Social Change in Iran', Iranian Studies, 4 (1971), pp. 2-36.
62. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society (Al Saqi, London, 1985), p. 137. See also C. Benard and E. Schlaffer, '"The Man in the Street": Why He Harasses', in Feminist Frontiers III, ed. L. Richardson and V. Taylor (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993), pp. 388-91; Monia Hejaiej, 'Women's Oral Narratives in Tunis' (unpub. PhD thesis, University of London, 1992); B. Pakizegi, 'Legal and Social Position of Iranian Women', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. L. Beck and N. Keddi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 224; W. G. Millward, 'Traditional Values and Social Change in Iran', Iranian Studies, 4 (1971), pp. 2-36.
63. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society (Al Saqi, London, 1985), p. 137. See also C. Benard and E. Schlaffer, '"The Man in the Street": Why He Harasses', in Feminist Frontiers III, ed. L. Richardson and V. Taylor (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993), pp. 388-91; Monia Hejaiej, 'Women's Oral Narratives in Tunis' (unpub. PhD thesis, University of London, 1992); B. Pakizegi, 'Legal and Social Position of Iranian Women', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. L. Beck and N. Keddi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 224; W. G. Millward, 'Traditional Values and Social Change in Iran', Iranian Studies, 4 (1971), pp. 2-36.
64. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society (Al Saqi, London, 1985), p. 137. See also C. Benard and E. Schlaffer, '"The Man in the Street": Why He Harasses', in Feminist Frontiers III, ed. L. Richardson and V. Taylor (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993), pp. 388-91; Monia Hejaiej, 'Women's Oral Narratives in Tunis' (unpub. PhD thesis, University of London, 1992); B. Pakizegi, 'Legal and Social Position of Iranian Women', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. L. Beck and N. Keddi (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. 224; W. G. Millward, 'Traditional Values and Social Change in Iran', Iranian Studies, 4 (1971), pp. 2-36.
65. Susan Ossman, Picturing Casablanca: Portraits of Power in a Modern City (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994), p. 159.
66. See section 'Separate Space, Separate World', in Julie Marcus, 'History, Anthropology and Gender: Turkish Women Past and Present', pp. 164-6.
67. Angela McRobbie, 'Settling Accounts with Subculture: A Feminist Critique', in On Record: Rock, Pop & the Written Word', ed. S. Frith and A. Goodwin (Pantheon, New York, 1990), pp. 66-80; Lisa Lewis, 'Consumer Girl Culture: How Music Video Appeals to Girls', in Television and Women's Culture: The Politics of the Popular, ed. Mary Ellen Brown (Sage, London and Newbury Park, 1990), pp. 89-101.
68. Angela McRobbie, 'Settling Accounts with Subculture: A Feminist Critique', in On Record: Rock, Pop & the Written Word', ed. S. Frith and A. Goodwin (Pantheon, New York, 1990), pp. 66-80; Lisa Lewis, 'Consumer Girl Culture: How Music Video Appeals to Girls', in Television and Women's Culture: The Politics of the Popular, ed. Mary Ellen Brown (Sage, London and Newbury Park, 1990), pp. 89-101.
69. Mernissi, Beyond the Veil, p. 8.
70. Mernissi, Beyond the Veil, p. 8.
71. Mernissi, Women and Islam.
72. Mernissi, Women and Islam, p. viii.
73. Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles', in Etre Marginal au Maghreb, ed. Fanny Colonna with Zakya Daoud (CNRS Editions/Alif, Paris, 1993), pp. 201-24; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992).
74. Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles', in Etre Marginal au Maghreb, ed. Fanny Colonna with Zakya Daoud (CNRS Editions/Alif, Paris, 1993), pp. 201-24; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam (Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1992).
75. Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam, p. 35.
76. Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam, p. 31.
77. Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles', p. 210.
78. Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles', p. 211. While there is no documentation of Tunisian women being taxed for income from singing and dancing, Karin van Nieuwkerk discusses taxation for women musicians in Egypt, particularly in Cairo. See Karin van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other': Female Singers and Dancers in Egypt (University of Texas Press, Austin, 1995), pp. 28-32.
79. Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles', p. 211. While there is no documentation of Tunisian women being taxed for income from singing and dancing, Karin van Nieuwkerk discusses taxation for women musicians in Egypt, particularly in Cairo. See Karin van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other': Female Singers and Dancers in Egypt (University of Texas Press, Austin, 1995), pp. 28-32.
80. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', pp. 21-39.
81. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 26.
82. M. Savary, Lettres sur l'Égypte, 3 vols (Les Libraires Associés, Amsterdam and Leiden), vol. 1, pp. 124-5. Cited in Karin van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 26.
83. M. Savary, Lettres sur l'Égypte, 3 vols (Les Libraires Associés, Amsterdam and Leiden), vol. 1, pp. 124-5. Cited in Karin van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 26.
84. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 26.
85. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 27.
86. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 27. Here she cites C. S. Sonnini, Voyage dans la haute et basse Egypte, 3 vols (Paris), vol. 2, p. 374.
87. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 27. Here she cites C. S. Sonnini, Voyage dans la haute et basse Egypte, 3 vols (Paris), vol. 2, p. 374.
88. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 32.
89. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 35.
90. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 36.
91. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 38.
92. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 37.
93. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', pp. 44-5.
94. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', pp. 48-9.
95. Lucy Green, 'Music and Gender: Can Music Raise Our Awareness?', Women: A Cultural Review, 5 (1994), p. 66.
96. Carol Neuls-Bates, Women in Music: An Anthology of Source Readings from the Middle Ages to the Present (Harper and Row, New York, 1982).
97. Green, 'Music and Gender', p. 66.
98. Green, 'Music and Gender', p. 67.
99. Green, 'Music and Gender', p. 66.
100. B. Harbach, 'Review of Cecelia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspectives on Gender and Music', Women of Note Quarterly, 3 (1995), pp. 14-25.
101. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick, Introduction to Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150-1950, ed. Jane Bowers and Judith Tick (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1986), pp. 3-14.
102. I. V. Jackson, 'Black Women and Music: A Survey From Africa to the New World', in The Black Woman Cross-Culturally, ed. F. C. Steady (Schenkman, Cambridge, 1975), p. 383.
103. Virginia Danielson, 'The Arab Middle East', in Popular Musics of the Non-Western World, ed. P. Manuel (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1988), p. 292.
104. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
105. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
106. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
107. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
108. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
109. With a few exceptions: Edda Brandes, 'The Role of the Female Ethnomusicologist in the Field: Experiences in Traditional Algerian Communities', in The World of Music, 33 (1991), pp. 35-49; Virginia Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs: Female Singers in Cairo during the 1920s', Women in Middle Eastern History: Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Beth Baron (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1991), pp. 292-309; Willy Jansen, Women Without Men: Gender and Marginality in an Algerian Town (Brill Academic, New York, 1987); L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', in Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Ellen Koskoff (Greenwood, New York, 1987), pp. 69-84; Laura Lengel, 'Une étude sur un aspect cultural du Maghreb: La femme, la musique, et les medias de Tunisie', presented at the 'Pratiques culturelles au Maghreb: techniques de communication et image de soi' conference, L'Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain, Tunis, Tunisia, 14 May 1994; van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other'. Tunisian women musicians during colonisation are also mentioned in Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 194-5.
110. L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective on Tunisian Women as Professional Musicians', p. 69.
111. Danielson, 'The Arab Middle East'.
112. Wiebke Walther, Women in Islam: From Medieval to Modern Times (Markus Wiener, Princeton, 1993).
113. C. Eddy, 'Desert Wind review', Rolling Stone, 22 March 1990, p. 115; and D. Toop, 'Zion of the Times: When Ofra Haza gives an electric beat to the songs of Yemen, Europe dances', Vogue, December 1988, p. 204.
114. C. Eddy, 'Desert Wind review', Rolling Stone, 22 March 1990, p. 115; and D. Toop, 'Zion of the Times: When Ofra Haza gives an electric beat to the songs of Yemen, Europe dances', Vogue, December 1988, p. 204.
115. L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective of Tunisian Women', p. 80.
116. L. JaFran Jones, 'A Sociohistorical Perspective of Tunisian Women', p. 80.
117. My field work includes research in Tunisia from October 1993 to September 1994, in Morocco in August 1995 and summer 1997. Research included feminist ethnographic participation-observation and over one hundred in-depth interviews with women musicians ranging from professional to amateur, the internationally/nationally known to those who perform only privately; women with differing marital and family backgrounds; women who are challenged by physical handicaps; women who have spent their lives in Tunis and others who have moved to Tunis to further their careers; women who have been encouraged to perform and those who have been forbidden to so do. I focused my ethnographic participant-observation on El 'Azifet and Taqassim, the first two widely recognised all-women's orchestras in the Arab world. Women who preferred to remain anonymous are not cited in these notes, and synonyms are used within the paper. Women who welcomed being named are listed in the paper and in the notes, with dates and location of the interview. Further discussion of feminist ethnographic methods employed in Tunisia can be found in Laura Lengel's 'Researching the "Other"'.
118. Monia Hejaiej, personal interview, 19 August, 1994.
119. Danielson, 'The Arab Middle East', p. 292.
120. Nawal Skandrani, Director, National Ballet of Tunisia, personal interview, 14 January 1994.
121. Nawal Skandrani, personal interview.
122. V. Denon, Reize in Opfer - en Neder Egipte Gedurende den Veldtocht van Bonaparte, 3 vols (Johannes Allart, Amsterdam, 1803), cited in van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 1.
123. V. Denon, Reize in Opfer - en Neder Egipte Gedurende den Veldtocht van Bonaparte, 3 vols (Johannes Allart, Amsterdam, 1803), cited in van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 1.
124. Van Nieuwkerk, 'A Trade Like Any Other', p. 1.
125. For discussion of prostitution in North Africa, see Margot Badran, 'Independent Women: More Than a Century of Feminism in Egypt', Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, 1991); p. 136; Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 197-9; Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53; Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles'; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam.
126. For discussion of prostitution in North Africa, see Margot Badran, 'Independent Women: More Than a Century of Feminism in Egypt', Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, 1991); p. 136; Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 197-9; Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53; Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles'; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam.
127. For discussion of prostitution in North Africa, see Margot Badran, 'Independent Women: More Than a Century of Feminism in Egypt', Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, 1991); p. 136; Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 197-9; Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53; Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles'; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam.
128. For discussion of prostitution in North Africa, see Margot Badran, 'Independent Women: More Than a Century of Feminism in Egypt', Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, 1991); p. 136; Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 197-9; Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53; Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles'; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam.
129. For discussion of prostitution in North Africa, see Margot Badran, 'Independent Women: More Than a Century of Feminism in Egypt', Arab Women: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, ed. Judith E. Tucker (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, and Indianapolis, 1991); p. 136; Souad Bakalti, La Femme Tunisienne au Temps de la Colonialisation, pp. 197-9; Clancy-Smith, 'La Femme Arabe', p. 53; Mohamed Kerrou and Moncef M'Halla, 'La Prostitution dans la medina de Tunis au XIXe et au XXe siècles'; Dalenda and Abdelhamid Largueche, Marginales en Terre d'Islam.
130. Badran, 'Independent Women', p. 141.
131. Jansen, Women Without Men, pp. 190-200.
132. Susan Shaefer Davis, 'Working Women in a Moroccan Village', in Women in the Muslim World, ed. Lois Beck and Nikki Keddie (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1978), pp. 422, 429.
133. cf. Evelyn Accad, Sexuality and War; Lilia Labidi, Çabra Hachma: Sexualité et tradition (Dar Annawras, Tunis, 1989); Mernissi, Women and Islam.
134. cf. Evelyn Accad, Sexuality and War; Lilia Labidi, Çabra Hachma: Sexualité et tradition (Dar Annawras, Tunis, 1989); Mernissi, Women and Islam.Tunis, 1989);
135. cf. Evelyn Accad, Sexuality and War; Lilia Labidi, Çabra Hachma: Sexualité et tradition (Dar Annawras, Tunis, 1989); Mernissi, Women and Islam.
136. Deniz A. Kandiyoti, 'Emancipated but Unliberated? Reflections on the Turkish Case', Feminist Studies, 13, p. 326.
137. Kandiyoti, 'Emancipated but Unliberated?', p. 319.
138. Monia Hejaiej, University of Tunis, personal interview, Tunis, 18 August 1994.
139. Nabiha Karaowlee, nationally known singer, personal interview, Tunis, 10 December 1993.
140. Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs', p. 301.
141. Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs', p. 304.
142. Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs', p. 304.
143. Danielson, 'Artists and Entrepreneurs', p. 304.
144. J. M. Edwards, 'All Women's Musical Communities: Fostering Creativity and Leadership', in Bridges of Power: Women's Multicultural Alliances, ed. L. Albrecht and R. M. Brewer (New Society, Philadelphia, 1990), p. 104. See also Linda Whitesitt, 'Women's Support and Encouragement of Music and Musicians', in Women and Music: A History, ed. Karin Pendell (University of Indiana, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1991).
145. J. M. Edwards, 'All Women's Musical Communities: Fostering Creativity and Leadership', in Bridges of Power: Women's Multicultural Alliances, ed. L. Albrecht and R. M. Brewer (New Society, Philadelphia, 1990), p. 104. See also Linda Whitesitt, 'Women's Support and Encouragement of Music and Musicians', in Women and Music: A History, ed. Karin Pendell (University of Indiana, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1991).
146. Amina Srarfi, director of the women's orchestra El 'Azifet, personal interview, Tunis, 20 December 1993.
147. Patrician Hayes, '"Cocky" Hahn and the "Black Venus": The Making of a Native Commissioner in South West Africa, 1915-46', Gender & History, 8 (1996), pp. 364-92.
148. Mary Natvig, 'Feminist Theory & Music II', Women of Note Quarterly, 1 (1993), pp. 8-9.
149. Natvig, 'Feminist Theory & Music II', p. 9.
150. Ilhem Abdelkefi, personal interview.
151. Jamila Hafsia, Performing Arts Center Director and feminist leader, personal interview, Tunis, 5 July 1994.