Portia ante portas: Women and the legal profession in Europe, ca. 1870-1925

Journal of Social History

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 824-857

  Albisetti, James C ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0039029057     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2000.0051     Document Type: Review

References (302)

1. Wilhelm Svetlin, Die Frauenfrage und der ärztliche Beruf (Leipzig and Vienna, 1895), pp. 10-11. On 25 April 1895, the Neues Wiener Tageblatt editorialized that the courtroom was "a place where women belonged just as little as they did in anatomy lectures"; see Marina Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums von Frauen: Die juridische Fakulät Wien bis zum Ende der Ersten Republik," in Bildungswesen und Sozialstruktur in Mitteleuropa im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Victor Karady and Wolfgang Mitter (Cologne and Vienna, 1990), p. 278.
2. Wilhelm Svetlin, Die Frauenfrage und der ärztliche Beruf (Leipzig and Vienna, 1895), pp. 10-11. On 25 April 1895, the Neues Wiener Tageblatt editorialized that the courtroom was "a place where women belonged just as little as they did in anatomy lectures"; see Marina Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums von Frauen: Die juridische Fakulät Wien bis zum Ende der Ersten Republik," in Bildungswesen und Sozialstruktur in Mitteleuropa im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Victor Karady and Wolfgang Mitter (Cologne and Vienna, 1990), p. 278.
3. This Hungarian peculiarity is not mentioned in recent works by Maria Kovács: The Politics of the Legal Profession in Interwar Hungary (New York, 1987); "Hungarian Women Entering the Professions: Feminist Pressures from Left and Right," in Bildungswesen und Sozialstruktur, ed. Karady and Mitter, pp. 247-57; Liberal Professions, Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust (Oxford, 1994).
4. This Hungarian peculiarity is not mentioned in recent works by Maria Kovács: The Politics of the Legal Profession in Interwar Hungary (New York, 1987); "Hungarian Women Entering the Professions: Feminist Pressures from Left and Right," in Bildungswesen und Sozialstruktur, ed. Karady and Mitter, pp. 247-57; Liberal Professions, Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust (Oxford, 1994).
5. This Hungarian peculiarity is not mentioned in recent works by Maria Kovács: The Politics of the Legal Profession in Interwar Hungary (New York, 1987); "Hungarian Women Entering the Professions: Feminist Pressures from Left and Right," in Bildungswesen und Sozialstruktur, ed. Karady and Mitter, pp. 247-57; Liberal Professions, Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust (Oxford, 1994).
6. Relevant here are Margarete Freiin von Erffa and Ingeborg Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," in Die Rechtsanwaltschaft, ed. Julius Magnus (Leipzig, 1929), pp. 471-85; Edmée Charrier, L'évolution intellectuelle féminine (Paris, 1931); Piero Addeo, Eva togata (Naples, 1939); and Zara Algardi, La donna e la toga (Milan, 1949).
7. Relevant here are Margarete Freiin von Erffa and Ingeborg Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," in Die Rechtsanwaltschaft, ed. Julius Magnus (Leipzig, 1929), pp. 471-85; Edmée Charrier, L'évolution intellectuelle féminine (Paris, 1931); Piero Addeo, Eva togata (Naples, 1939); and Zara Algardi, La donna e la toga (Milan, 1949).
8. Relevant here are Margarete Freiin von Erffa and Ingeborg Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," in Die Rechtsanwaltschaft, ed. Julius Magnus (Leipzig, 1929), pp. 471-85; Edmée Charrier, L'évolution intellectuelle féminine (Paris, 1931); Piero Addeo, Eva togata (Naples, 1939); and Zara Algardi, La donna e la toga (Milan, 1949).
9. Relevant here are Margarete Freiin von Erffa and Ingeborg Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," in Die Rechtsanwaltschaft, ed. Julius Magnus (Leipzig, 1929), pp. 471-85; Edmée Charrier, L'évolution intellectuelle féminine (Paris, 1931); Piero Addeo, Eva togata (Naples, 1939); and Zara Algardi, La donna e la toga (Milan, 1949).
10. There is, for example, no mention of women lawyers in Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present, vol. 2 (New York, 1988). The one mention of a woman lawyer, the Swiss Emilie Kempin-Spyri, in Geneviève Fraisse and Michelle Perrot, eds., A History of Women in the West, Vol 4: Emerging Feminism from Revolution to World War (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1993), contains several errors: see Anne-Marie Käppeli, "Feminist Scenes," p. 509.
11. There is, for example, no mention of women lawyers in Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present, vol. 2 (New York, 1988). The one mention of a woman lawyer, the Swiss Emilie Kempin-Spyri, in Geneviève Fraisse and Michelle Perrot, eds., A History of Women in the West, Vol 4: Emerging Feminism from Revolution to World War (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1993), contains several errors: see Anne-Marie Käppeli, "Feminist Scenes," p. 509.
12. There is, for example, no mention of women lawyers in Bonnie S. Anderson and Judith P. Zinsser, A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present, vol. 2 (New York, 1988). The one mention of a woman lawyer, the Swiss Emilie Kempin-Spyri, in Geneviève Fraisse and Michelle Perrot, eds., A History of Women in the West, Vol 4: Emerging Feminism from Revolution to World War (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1993), contains several errors: see Anne-Marie Käppeli, "Feminist Scenes," p. 509.
13. Thomas N. Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth: Women's Search for Education in Medicine (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1992).
14. See, for example, Brian L. Levin-Stankovich, "The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia," in Russia's Missing Middle Class, ed. Harley Balzer (Armonk, New York, and London, 1995), pp. 223-49; and Kenneth Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession: Simultaneous Admission and the German Bar, 1903-1927," in German Professions, 1800-1950, ed. Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad Jarausch (New York and Oxford, 1990), pp. 252-69. The admission of women to the legal profession in various countries receives brief and inconsistent coverage in Richard L Abel and Philip S. C. Lewis, eds., Lawyers in Society, 3 vols. (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1988-89).
15. See, for example, Brian L. Levin-Stankovich, "The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia," in Russia's Missing Middle Class, ed. Harley Balzer (Armonk, New York, and London, 1995), pp. 223-49; and Kenneth Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession: Simultaneous Admission and the German Bar, 1903-1927," in German Professions, 1800-1950, ed. Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad Jarausch (New York and Oxford, 1990), pp. 252-69. The admission of women to the legal profession in various countries receives brief and inconsistent coverage in Richard L Abel and Philip S. C. Lewis, eds., Lawyers in Society, 3 vols. (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1988-89).
16. See, for example, Brian L. Levin-Stankovich, "The Transfer of Legal Technology and Culture: Law Professionals in Tsarist Russia," in Russia's Missing Middle Class, ed. Harley Balzer (Armonk, New York, and London, 1995), pp. 223-49; and Kenneth Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession: Simultaneous Admission and the German Bar, 1903-1927," in German Professions, 1800-1950, ed. Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad Jarausch (New York and Oxford, 1990), pp. 252-69. The admission of women to the legal profession in various countries receives brief and inconsistent coverage in Richard L Abel and Philip S. C. Lewis, eds., Lawyers in Society, 3 vols. (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1988-89).
17. Hannes Siegrist, Advokat, Bürger und Staat: Sozialgeschichte der Rechtsanwälte in Deutschland, Italien und der Schweiz (18.-20. Jahrhundert), 2 vols. (Frankfurt am Main, 1996). Siegrist did not use Charrier, Addeo, or Algardi, mentioned in note 3 above.
18. Peter Gay, The Cultivation of Hatred (New York and London, 1993), p. 363; Barbara Harris, Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History (Westport, Conn., 1978), p. 110; R. D. Gidney and W. P. J. Millar, Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 1994), p. 325.
19. Peter Gay, The Cultivation of Hatred (New York and London, 1993), p. 363; Barbara Harris, Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History (Westport, Conn., 1978), p. 110; R. D. Gidney and W. P. J. Millar, Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 1994), p. 325.
20. Peter Gay, The Cultivation of Hatred (New York and London, 1993), p. 363; Barbara Harris, Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History (Westport, Conn., 1978), p. 110; R. D. Gidney and W. P. J. Millar, Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 1994), p. 325.
21. Nellie Alden Franz, British Women Enter the Professions (Cincinnati, 1965), p. 277; Leslie Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women': Eliza Orme and the Study and Practice of Law in Late Victorian England," Atlantis 15, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 47; W.J. Reader, Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1966), p. 18. A view similar to that of Franz can be found in Michael Grossberg, "Institutionalizing Masculinity: The Law as a Masculine Profession," in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, ed. Mark Carnes and Clyde Griffin (Chicago, 1990), pp. 133-51.
22. Nellie Alden Franz, British Women Enter the Professions (Cincinnati, 1965), p. 277; Leslie Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women': Eliza Orme and the Study and Practice of Law in Late Victorian England," Atlantis 15, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 47; W.J. Reader, Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1966), p. 18. A view similar to that of Franz can be found in Michael Grossberg, "Institutionalizing Masculinity: The Law as a Masculine Profession," in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, ed. Mark Carnes and Clyde Griffin (Chicago, 1990), pp. 133-51.
23. Nellie Alden Franz, British Women Enter the Professions (Cincinnati, 1965), p. 277; Leslie Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women': Eliza Orme and the Study and Practice of Law in Late Victorian England," Atlantis 15, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 47; W.J. Reader, Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1966), p. 18. A view similar to that of Franz can be found in Michael Grossberg, "Institutionalizing Masculinity: The Law as a Masculine Profession," in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, ed. Mark Carnes and Clyde Griffin (Chicago, 1990), pp. 133-51.
24. Nellie Alden Franz, British Women Enter the Professions (Cincinnati, 1965), p. 277; Leslie Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women': Eliza Orme and the Study and Practice of Law in Late Victorian England," Atlantis 15, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 47; W.J. Reader, Professional Men: The Rise of the Professional Classes in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1966), p. 18. A view similar to that of Franz can be found in Michael Grossberg, "Institutionalizing Masculinity: The Law as a Masculine Profession," in Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America, ed. Mark Carnes and Clyde Griffin (Chicago, 1990), pp. 133-51.
25. E. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement: An Intimate Account of Persons and Ideals (London, 1931), pp. 179, 214.
26. Reader, Professional Men, p. 174.
27. Arthur Kirchhoff, ed., Die akademische Frau (Berlin, 1897). This imbalance stemmed in part from the fact that opening the medical profession was a more likely prospect at the time.
28. Aletta Jacobs Gerritsen was, of course, a physician.
29. Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (New York, 1965), pp. 104-108; Edith Lutzker, Women Gain a Place in Medicine (New York, 1969), p. 75; Franziska Tiburtius, Erinnerungen einer Achtzigjährigen, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1925), p. 107; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 442; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, pp. 71-73.
30. Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (New York, 1965), pp. 104-108; Edith Lutzker, Women Gain a Place in Medicine (New York, 1969), p. 75; Franziska Tiburtius, Erinnerungen einer Achtzigjährigen, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1925), p. 107; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 442; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, pp. 71-73.
31. Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (New York, 1965), pp. 104-108; Edith Lutzker, Women Gain a Place in Medicine (New York, 1969), p. 75; Franziska Tiburtius, Erinnerungen einer Achtzigjährigen, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1925), p. 107; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 442; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, pp. 71-73.
32. Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (New York, 1965), pp. 104-108; Edith Lutzker, Women Gain a Place in Medicine (New York, 1969), p. 75; Franziska Tiburtius, Erinnerungen einer Achtzigjährigen, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1925), p. 107; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 442; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, pp. 71-73.
33. Jo Manton, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (New York, 1965), pp. 104-108; Edith Lutzker, Women Gain a Place in Medicine (New York, 1969), p. 75; Franziska Tiburtius, Erinnerungen einer Achtzigjährigen, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1925), p. 107; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 442; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, pp. 71-73.
34. Simonetta Ulivieri, "La donna e gli studi universitari nell'Italia postunitaria," in Cento anni università, ed. Francesco DeVivo and Giovanni Genovese (Parma, 1986), p. 225; James C. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women (Princeton, 1988), p. 236; Kovács, "Hungarian Women," pp. 251-52.
35. Simonetta Ulivieri, "La donna e gli studi universitari nell'Italia postunitaria," in Cento anni università, ed. Francesco DeVivo and Giovanni Genovese (Parma, 1986), p. 225; James C. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women (Princeton, 1988), p. 236; Kovács, "Hungarian Women," pp. 251-52.
36. Simonetta Ulivieri, "La donna e gli studi universitari nell'Italia postunitaria," in Cento anni università, ed. Francesco DeVivo and Giovanni Genovese (Parma, 1986), p. 225; James C. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls and Women (Princeton, 1988), p. 236; Kovács, "Hungarian Women," pp. 251-52.
37. Boucherett cited in Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" p. 47; Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement, p. 214; Christine Bard, Les filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1995), p. 178. Steven Hause characterizes the incident with Chauvin as a "riot," but this seems exaggerated: Hause, with Anne R. Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton, 1984), p. 24.
38. Boucherett cited in Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" p. 47; Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement, p. 214; Christine Bard, Les filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1995), p. 178. Steven Hause characterizes the incident with Chauvin as a "riot," but this seems exaggerated: Hause, with Anne R. Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton, 1984), p. 24.
39. Boucherett cited in Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" p. 47; Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement, p. 214; Christine Bard, Les filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1995), p. 178. Steven Hause characterizes the incident with Chauvin as a "riot," but this seems exaggerated: Hause, with Anne R. Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton, 1984), p. 24.
40. Boucherett cited in Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" p. 47; Pankhurst, The Suffragette Movement, p. 214; Christine Bard, Les filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914-1940 (Paris, 1995), p. 178. Steven Hause characterizes the incident with Chauvin as a "riot," but this seems exaggerated: Hause, with Anne R. Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton, 1984), p. 24.
41. Virginia Drachman, Sisters in Law: Women Lawyers in Modern American History (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), pp. 56, 74.
42. Drachmann, Sisters in Law; Karen Berger Morello, The Invisible Bar: The Woman Lawyer in America, 1638 to the Present (Boston, 1986); Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto, 1991), p. 293.
43. Drachmann, Sisters in Law; Karen Berger Morello, The Invisible Bar: The Woman Lawyer in America, 1638 to the Present (Boston, 1986); Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto, 1991), p. 293.
44. Drachmann, Sisters in Law; Karen Berger Morello, The Invisible Bar: The Woman Lawyer in America, 1638 to the Present (Boston, 1986); Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice: Women and Law in Nineteenth-Century Canada (Toronto, 1991), p. 293.
45. Robert Stevens, Law School: Legal Education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s (Chapel Hill, 1983), p. 82; Anne Witz, Professions and Patriarchy (London, 1992), p. 103; Richard Abel, "Lawyers in the Civil Law World," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 35.
46. Robert Stevens, Law School: Legal Education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s (Chapel Hill, 1983), p. 82; Anne Witz, Professions and Patriarchy (London, 1992), p. 103; Richard Abel, "Lawyers in the Civil Law World," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 35.
47. Robert Stevens, Law School: Legal Education in America from the 1850s to the 1980s (Chapel Hill, 1983), p. 82; Anne Witz, Professions and Patriarchy (London, 1992), p. 103; Richard Abel, "Lawyers in the Civil Law World," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 35.
48. Ilse Costas, "Der Kampf um das Frauenstudium im internationalen Vergleich," in Pionierinnen, Feministinnen, Karrierefrauen? Zur Geschichte des Frauenstudiums in Deutschland, ed. Anne Schlüter (Pfaffenweiler, 1992), pp. 115-43; idem, "Das Verhältnis von Profession, Professionalisierung und Geschlecht in historisch vergleichender Perspektive," in Profession und Geschlecht: Über die Marginalität von Frauen in hochqualifizierten Berufen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1992), pp. 51-82; idem, "Der Zugang von Frauen zu akademischen Karrieren: Ein internationaler Überlick," in Bedrohlich gescheit: Ein Jahrhundert Frauen und Wissenschaft in Bayern, ed. Hiltrud Häntschel and Hadumod Bussmann (Munich 1997), pp. 15-34; and, most focused on law, idem, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche und das Verhältnis von Profession und Geschlecht: Die juristische Profession im deutsch-französischen Vergleich," in Dos soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1995), pp. 121-38.
49. Ilse Costas, "Der Kampf um das Frauenstudium im internationalen Vergleich," in Pionierinnen, Feministinnen, Karrierefrauen? Zur Geschichte des Frauenstudiums in Deutschland, ed. Anne Schlüter (Pfaffenweiler, 1992), pp. 115-43; idem, "Das Verhältnis von Profession, Professionalisierung und Geschlecht in historisch vergleichender Perspektive," in Profession und Geschlecht: Über die Marginalität von Frauen in hochqualifizierten Berufen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1992), pp. 51-82; idem, "Der Zugang von Frauen zu akademischen Karrieren: Ein internationaler Überlick," in Bedrohlich gescheit: Ein Jahrhundert Frauen und Wissenschaft in Bayern, ed. Hiltrud Häntschel and Hadumod Bussmann (Munich 1997), pp. 15-34; and, most focused on law, idem, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche und das Verhältnis von Profession und Geschlecht: Die juristische Profession im deutsch-französischen Vergleich," in Dos soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1995), pp. 121-38.
50. Ilse Costas, "Der Kampf um das Frauenstudium im internationalen Vergleich," in Pionierinnen, Feministinnen, Karrierefrauen? Zur Geschichte des Frauenstudiums in Deutschland, ed. Anne Schlüter (Pfaffenweiler, 1992), pp. 115-43; idem, "Das Verhältnis von Profession, Professionalisierung und Geschlecht in historisch vergleichender Perspektive," in Profession und Geschlecht: Über die Marginalität von Frauen in hochqualifizierten Berufen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1992), pp. 51-82; idem, "Der Zugang von Frauen zu akademischen Karrieren: Ein internationaler Überlick," in Bedrohlich gescheit: Ein Jahrhundert Frauen und Wissenschaft in Bayern, ed. Hiltrud Häntschel and Hadumod Bussmann (Munich 1997), pp. 15-34; and, most focused on law, idem, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche und das Verhältnis von Profession und Geschlecht: Die juristische Profession im deutsch-französischen Vergleich," in Dos soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1995), pp. 121-38.
51. Ilse Costas, "Der Kampf um das Frauenstudium im internationalen Vergleich," in Pionierinnen, Feministinnen, Karrierefrauen? Zur Geschichte des Frauenstudiums in Deutschland, ed. Anne Schlüter (Pfaffenweiler, 1992), pp. 115-43; idem, "Das Verhältnis von Profession, Professionalisierung und Geschlecht in historisch vergleichender Perspektive," in Profession und Geschlecht: Über die Marginalität von Frauen in hochqualifizierten Berufen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1992), pp. 51-82; idem, "Der Zugang von Frauen zu akademischen Karrieren: Ein internationaler Überlick," in Bedrohlich gescheit: Ein Jahrhundert Frauen und Wissenschaft in Bayern, ed. Hiltrud Häntschel and Hadumod Bussmann (Munich 1997), pp. 15-34; and, most focused on law, idem, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche und das Verhältnis von Profession und Geschlecht: Die juristische Profession im deutsch-französischen Vergleich," in Dos soziale Konstruktion von Geschlecht in Professionalisierungsprozessen, ed. Angelika Wetterer (Frankfurt and New York, 1995), pp. 121-38.
52. The indispensable source for Poët's case is Ferdinando Santoni-di Sio, La donna e l'avvocatura (Rome, 1884). A brief modern treatment can be found in Marino Raichich, "Liceo, università, professioni: un percorso difficile," in L'educazione delle donne: Scuole e modelli di vita femminile nell'Italia dell'Ottocento, ed. Simonetta Soldani (Milan, 1989), pp. 151-53. For the general context, see Maria Malatesta, ed., Society and the Professions in Italy, trans. Adrian Belton (Cambridge, 1995).
53. The indispensable source for Poët's case is Ferdinando Santoni-di Sio, La donna e l'avvocatura (Rome, 1884). A brief modern treatment can be found in Marino Raichich, "Liceo, università, professioni: un percorso difficile," in L'educazione delle donne: Scuole e modelli di vita femminile nell'Italia dell'Ottocento, ed. Simonetta Soldani (Milan, 1989), pp. 151-53. For the general context, see Maria Malatesta, ed., Society and the Professions in Italy, trans. Adrian Belton (Cambridge, 1995).
54. The indispensable source for Poët's case is Ferdinando Santoni-di Sio, La donna e l'avvocatura (Rome, 1884). A brief modern treatment can be found in Marino Raichich, "Liceo, università, professioni: un percorso difficile," in L'educazione delle donne: Scuole e modelli di vita femminile nell'Italia dell'Ottocento, ed. Simonetta Soldani (Milan, 1989), pp. 151-53. For the general context, see Maria Malatesta, ed., Society and the Professions in Italy, trans. Adrian Belton (Cambridge, 1995).
55. Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 25. Emile de Laveleye refers to a woman receiving a degree in 1881 from Bologna, but I believe he refers to Poët at Turin: "L'instruction supérieure des femmes," in Essais et études (3 vols.; Ghent and Paris, 1894), 2: 359.
56. Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 25. Emile de Laveleye refers to a woman receiving a degree in 1881 from Bologna, but I believe he refers to Poët at Turin: "L'instruction supérieure des femmes," in Essais et études (3 vols.; Ghent and Paris, 1894), 2: 359.
57. See Cahiers féministes, 5, no. 13 (1 Sept. 1900).
58. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 142; Pietro Cogliolo, "Le donne avvocate seconde il diritto italiano: difesa per Teresa Labriola," in Scritti varii di diritto privato, 2 vols. (Turin, 1917), 2: 64; Fiorenza Taricone, Teresa Labriola: Biografia politica di un'intelletuale tra Ottocento e Novacento (Milan, 1994), pp. 14-19. It is not clear why Labriola suddenly decided to apply for admission to the bar more than a decade after her degree. She would later be a strong advocate of Italian intervention in World War I and a supporter of Fascism.
59. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 142; Pietro Cogliolo, "Le donne avvocate seconde il diritto italiano: difesa per Teresa Labriola," in Scritti varii di diritto privato, 2 vols. (Turin, 1917), 2: 64; Fiorenza Taricone, Teresa Labriola: Biografia politica di un'intelletuale tra Ottocento e Novacento (Milan, 1994), pp. 14-19. It is not clear why Labriola suddenly decided to apply for admission to the bar more than a decade after her degree. She would later be a strong advocate of Italian intervention in World War I and a supporter of Fascism.
60. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 142; Pietro Cogliolo, "Le donne avvocate seconde il diritto italiano: difesa per Teresa Labriola," in Scritti varii di diritto privato, 2 vols. (Turin, 1917), 2: 64; Fiorenza Taricone, Teresa Labriola: Biografia politica di un'intelletuale tra Ottocento e Novacento (Milan, 1994), pp. 14-19. It is not clear why Labriola suddenly decided to apply for admission to the bar more than a decade after her degree. She would later be a strong advocate of Italian intervention in World War I and a supporter of Fascism.
61. Maria Malatesta, "The Italian Professions from a Comparative Perspective," in Society and the Professions, ed. Malatesta, p. 15; Marco Santoro, "Officials and Professionals: Notaries, the State, and the Market Principle," ibid., pp. 111-14; Michela DeGiorgio, Le Italiane dall'unità a oggi (Rome and Bari, 1992), p. 483.
62. Maria Malatesta, "The Italian Professions from a Comparative Perspective," in Society and the Professions, ed. Malatesta, p. 15; Marco Santoro, "Officials and Professionals: Notaries, the State, and the Market Principle," ibid., pp. 111-14; Michela DeGiorgio, Le Italiane dall'unità a oggi (Rome and Bari, 1992), p. 483.
63. Maria Malatesta, "The Italian Professions from a Comparative Perspective," in Society and the Professions, ed. Malatesta, p. 15; Marco Santoro, "Officials and Professionals: Notaries, the State, and the Market Principle," ibid., pp. 111-14; Michela DeGiorgio, Le Italiane dall'unità a oggi (Rome and Bari, 1992), p. 483.
64. Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Marie Popelin," in Biographie nationale de Belgique 39 (1976), col. 733-42; idem, "A l'origine du mouvement féministe en Belgique: 'L'Affaire Popelin,' " Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 50 (1972): 1,128-37; idem, "Marie Popelin et les débuts du mouvement féministe belge (1892-1914)," in Femmes des années 80: Un siècle de condition féminine en Belgique, 1889-1989, ed. Luc Courtois et al. (Louvainla-Neuve, 1989), pp. 197-202. Popelin is described as having a licence rather than a doctorate in Moisei Iskovlevich Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women (London, 1893), p. 144.
65. Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Marie Popelin," in Biographie nationale de Belgique 39 (1976), col. 733-42; idem, "A l'origine du mouvement féministe en Belgique: 'L'Affaire Popelin,' " Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 50 (1972): 1,128-37; idem, "Marie Popelin et les débuts du mouvement féministe belge (1892-1914)," in Femmes des années 80: Un siècle de condition féminine en Belgique, 1889-1989, ed. Luc Courtois et al. (Louvainla-Neuve, 1989), pp. 197-202. Popelin is described as having a licence rather than a doctorate in Moisei Iskovlevich Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women (London, 1893), p. 144.
66. Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Marie Popelin," in Biographie nationale de Belgique 39 (1976), col. 733-42; idem, "A l'origine du mouvement féministe en Belgique: 'L'Affaire Popelin,' " Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 50 (1972): 1,128-37; idem, "Marie Popelin et les débuts du mouvement féministe belge (1892-1914)," in Femmes des années 80: Un siècle de condition féminine en Belgique, 1889-1989, ed. Luc Courtois et al. (Louvainla-Neuve, 1989), pp. 197-202. Popelin is described as having a licence rather than a doctorate in Moisei Iskovlevich Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women (London, 1893), p. 144.
67. Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Marie Popelin," in Biographie nationale de Belgique 39 (1976), col. 733-42; idem, "A l'origine du mouvement féministe en Belgique: 'L'Affaire Popelin,' " Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 50 (1972): 1,128-37; idem, "Marie Popelin et les débuts du mouvement féministe belge (1892-1914)," in Femmes des années 80: Un siècle de condition féminine en Belgique, 1889-1989, ed. Luc Courtois et al. (Louvainla-Neuve, 1989), pp. 197-202. Popelin is described as having a licence rather than a doctorate in Moisei Iskovlevich Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women (London, 1893), p. 144.
68. Louis Frank, La femme-avocat: Exposé historique et juridique de la question (Paris, 1898), pp. 71-83, quotation on p. 81. Frank had published a shorter work under the same title in Brussels in 1888, before Popelin's case went to court. The new version, not identified as a second edition, appeared in defense of Jeanne Chauvin's claims in France. These works will be referred to as Frank (I) and (II).
69. Cited in Marthe Boël and Christiane Duchene, Le féminisme en Belgique, 1892-1914 (Brussels, 1955), p. 128.
70. De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p. 1,137; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 438; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 143; Luc Huyse, "Legal Experts in Belgium," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 231-33.
71. De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p. 1,137; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 438; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 143; Luc Huyse, "Legal Experts in Belgium," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 231-33.
72. De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p. 1,137; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 438; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 143; Luc Huyse, "Legal Experts in Belgium," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 231-33.
73. De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p. 1,137; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 438; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 143; Luc Huyse, "Legal Experts in Belgium," in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 2: 231-33.
74. H. Barthélemy, "Nos Grandes Écoles: L'École du droit," Revue des deux mondes 36 (Nov.-Dec. 1926): 329-30; Frank, La femme avocat (I), p. 24; idem, La femme avocat (II), p. 120; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 472-73. Bilcesco's dissertation was De la condition légale de la mère (Paris, 1890).
75. H. Barthélemy, "Nos Grandes Écoles: L'École du droit," Revue des deux mondes 36 (Nov.-Dec. 1926): 329-30; Frank, La femme avocat (I), p. 24; idem, La femme avocat (II), p. 120; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 472-73. Bilcesco's dissertation was De la condition légale de la mère (Paris, 1890).
76. H. Barthélemy, "Nos Grandes Écoles: L'École du droit," Revue des deux mondes 36 (Nov.-Dec. 1926): 329-30; Frank, La femme avocat (I), p. 24; idem, La femme avocat (II), p. 120; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 472-73. Bilcesco's dissertation was De la condition légale de la mère (Paris, 1890).
77. H. Barthélemy, "Nos Grandes Écoles: L'École du droit," Revue des deux mondes 36 (Nov.-Dec. 1926): 329-30; Frank, La femme avocat (I), p. 24; idem, La femme avocat (II), p. 120; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 472-73. Bilcesco's dissertation was De la condition légale de la mère (Paris, 1890).
78. H. Barthélemy, "Nos Grandes Écoles: L'École du droit," Revue des deux mondes 36 (Nov.-Dec. 1926): 329-30; Frank, La femme avocat (I), p. 24; idem, La femme avocat (II), p. 120; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 472-73. Bilcesco's dissertation was De la condition légale de la mère (Paris, 1890).
79. "Jeanne Chauvin," Dictionnaire de biographie française, vol. 8 (Paris, 1959), p. 927; Jeanne Chauvin, Étude historique sur les professions accessibles aux femmes (Paris, 1892); Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 336-38. There is no entry for Chauvin in Patrick Hutton, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870-1940, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1986).
80. "Jeanne Chauvin," Dictionnaire de biographie française, vol. 8 (Paris, 1959), p. 927; Jeanne Chauvin, Étude historique sur les professions accessibles aux femmes (Paris, 1892); Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 336-38. There is no entry for Chauvin in Patrick Hutton, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870-1940, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1986).
81. "Jeanne Chauvin," Dictionnaire de biographie française, vol. 8 (Paris, 1959), p. 927; Jeanne Chauvin, Étude historique sur les professions accessibles aux femmes (Paris, 1892); Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 336-38. There is no entry for Chauvin in Patrick Hutton, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870-1940, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1986).
82. "Jeanne Chauvin," Dictionnaire de biographie française, vol. 8 (Paris, 1959), p. 927; Jeanne Chauvin, Étude historique sur les professions accessibles aux femmes (Paris, 1892); Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 336-38. There is no entry for Chauvin in Patrick Hutton, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Third French Republic, 1870-1940, 2 vols. (Westport, Conn., 1986).
83. Hause, Women's Suffrage, p. 122. Costas ignores both the specific political context and the presence of Chauvin's brother in the Chamber: see Costas, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche".
84. Hause, Women's Suffrage, p. 122. Costas ignores both the specific political context and the presence of Chauvin's brother in the Chamber: see Costas, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche".
85. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 6th Legislature, 1898, pp. 1,338, 2,232-33; ibid., 7th Legislature, 1899, pp. 1,758-64; Cahiers féministes 5, no. 18 (15 Nov. 1900); Christophe Charle, Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Miriam Kochan (Oxford and Providence, 1994), p. 169. Charle, without benefit of international comparisons, suggests that worries about overcrowding led the French bar to institute "maximum limitations on entry by women": ibid., p. 177. Costas seriously underestimates French concern with overcrowding.
86. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 6th Legislature, 1898, pp. 1,338, 2,232-33; ibid., 7th Legislature, 1899, pp. 1,758-64; Cahiers féministes 5, no. 18 (15 Nov. 1900); Christophe Charle, Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Miriam Kochan (Oxford and Providence, 1994), p. 169. Charle, without benefit of international comparisons, suggests that worries about overcrowding led the French bar to institute "maximum limitations on entry by women": ibid., p. 177. Costas seriously underestimates French concern with overcrowding.
87. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 6th Legislature, 1898, pp. 1,338, 2,232-33; ibid., 7th Legislature, 1899, pp. 1,758-64; Cahiers féministes 5, no. 18 (15 Nov. 1900); Christophe Charle, Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Miriam Kochan (Oxford and Providence, 1994), p. 169. Charle, without benefit of international comparisons, suggests that worries about overcrowding led the French bar to institute "maximum limitations on entry by women": ibid., p. 177. Costas seriously underestimates French concern with overcrowding.
88. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 6th Legislature, 1898, pp. 1,338, 2,232-33; ibid., 7th Legislature, 1899, pp. 1,758-64; Cahiers féministes 5, no. 18 (15 Nov. 1900); Christophe Charle, Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Miriam Kochan (Oxford and Providence, 1994), p. 169. Charle, without benefit of international comparisons, suggests that worries about overcrowding led the French bar to institute "maximum limitations on entry by women": ibid., p. 177. Costas seriously underestimates French concern with overcrowding.
89. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 6th Legislature, 1898, pp. 1,338, 2,232-33; ibid., 7th Legislature, 1899, pp. 1,758-64; Cahiers féministes 5, no. 18 (15 Nov. 1900); Christophe Charle, Social History of France in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Miriam Kochan (Oxford and Providence, 1994), p. 169. Charle, without benefit of international comparisons, suggests that worries about overcrowding led the French bar to institute "maximum limitations on entry by women": ibid., p. 177. Costas seriously underestimates French concern with overcrowding.
90. Cahiers féministes 5, no. 22 (15 Jan. 1901); Hause, Woman's Suffrage, p. 53; Bard, Les filles de Marianne, p. 363 and passim . Bard also notes complaints about the fact that forty out of forty-four women lawyers registered in Paris as of 1917 were either foreigners or Jews: ibid., p. 405.
91. Cahiers féministes 5, no. 22 (15 Jan. 1901); Hause, Woman's Suffrage, p. 53; Bard, Les filles de Marianne, p. 363 and passim . Bard also notes complaints about the fact that forty out of forty-four women lawyers registered in Paris as of 1917 were either foreigners or Jews: ibid., p. 405.
92. Cahiers féministes 5, no. 22 (15 Jan. 1901); Hause, Woman's Suffrage, p. 53; Bard, Les filles de Marianne, p. 363 and passim . Bard also notes complaints about the fact that forty out of forty-four women lawyers registered in Paris as of 1917 were either foreigners or Jews: ibid., p. 405.
93. Cahiers féministes 5, no. 22 (15 Jan. 1901); Hause, Woman's Suffrage, p. 53; Bard, Les filles de Marianne, p. 363 and passim . Bard also notes complaints about the fact that forty out of forty-four women lawyers registered in Paris as of 1917 were either foreigners or Jews: ibid., p. 405.
94. Costas, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche," p. 130; L. N. Brown, "The Office of the Notary in France," International and Comparative Law Quarterly 2 (1953): 62.
95. Costas, "Gesellschaftliche Umbrüche," p. 130; L. N. Brown, "The Office of the Notary in France," International and Comparative Law Quarterly 2 (1953): 62.
96. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
97. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
98. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
99. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
100. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
101. Jan Marinus Meijer, Knowledge and Revolution: The Russian Colony in Zurich (Assen, 1955), pp. 54, 208, 50; Marianne Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1994), p. 29; Pietro Scandola, ed., Hochschulgeschichte Berns (Bern, 1984), p. 500; Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth, p. 65. Both Delfosse and Scandola note Fanny Berlin's law degree, though neither is aware of her medical study and career. According to Laveleye, a Russian woman who earned a law degree in Bern in 1878 planned to open a legal advice office in St. Petersburg: "L'instruction supérieure," p. 358. That the same woman earned both degrees is not entirely certain, but the surgeon Fanny Berlin did not arrive in Boston until 1879: see Virginia Drachman, Hospital with a Heart: Women Doctors and the Paradox of Separatism at the New England Hospital, 1862-1969 (Ithaca and London, 1984), p. 107.
102. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
103. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
104. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
105. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
106. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
107. On Kempin, see Verena Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften in Zürich," Zürcher Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1981 (Zurich, 1981), pp. 74-112; Susanna Woodtli, Gleichberechtigung: Der Kampf um die politischen Rechte der Frau in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1983), pp. 93-98; Sabine Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," in Ebenso neu als kühn: 120 Jahre Frauenstudium an der Universität Zürich, ed. Verein feministische Wissenschaft Schweiz (Zurich, 1988), pp. 177-84; Eveline Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau: Die Geschichte der Emily Kempin-Spyri (Zurich, 1991; 11th printing, 1993), esp. p. 167; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri; Christiane Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage: Die Juristinnen der deutschen Frauenbewegung und das Bürgerliche Gesetzbuch (Baden-Baden, 1995).
108. Siegrist, Advokat, 432-34. Louis Frank incorrectly referred to Kempin as a "stagiaire," when there was no such apprenticeship in Zurich: La femme-avocat (I), pp. 32-33. See Kempin's own description of her activities in a letter to the American Equity Club in 1888, cited in Virginia Drachman, Women Lawyers and the Origins of Professional Identity in America: The Letters of the Equity Club, 1887-1890 (Ann Arbor, 1993), pp. 104-06.
109. Siegrist, Advokat, 432-34. Louis Frank incorrectly referred to Kempin as a "stagiaire," when there was no such apprenticeship in Zurich: La femme-avocat (I), pp. 32-33. See Kempin's own description of her activities in a letter to the American Equity Club in 1888, cited in Virginia Drachman, Women Lawyers and the Origins of Professional Identity in America: The Letters of the Equity Club, 1887-1890 (Ann Arbor, 1993), pp. 104-06.
110. Siegrist, Advokat, 432-34. Louis Frank incorrectly referred to Kempin as a "stagiaire," when there was no such apprenticeship in Zurich: La femme-avocat (I), pp. 32-33. See Kempin's own description of her activities in a letter to the American Equity Club in 1888, cited in Virginia Drachman, Women Lawyers and the Origins of Professional Identity in America: The Letters of the Equity Club, 1887-1890 (Ann Arbor, 1993), pp. 104-06.
111. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 39-43, 67-70, appendix 1; Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau, pp. 228-35.
112. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 39-43, 67-70, appendix 1; Hasler, Die Wachsflügelfrau, pp. 228-35.
113. Morello, Invisible Bar, pp. 76-80. Drachman turns Kempin from Swiss to Belgian and mistakenly says that she left New York for a teaching position at Bern, which in fact never came to pass: Women Lawyers, pp. 281-83.
114. Morello, Invisible Bar, pp. 76-80. Drachman turns Kempin from Swiss to Belgian and mistakenly says that she left New York for a teaching position at Bern, which in fact never came to pass: Women Lawyers, pp. 281-83.
115. Streiter, "Die Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," p. 178; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 10-11, 49-53.
116. Streiter, "Die Rechts-und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," p. 178; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 10-11, 49-53.
117. Delfosse has discovered significant new material about her mental illness: Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 16-22.
118. Ibid., pp. 55-66; Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen," pp. 105-06. On Mackenroth see Gabi Einsele, " 'Kein Vaterland': Deutsche Studentinnen in Zürcher Exil," in Pionierinnen, ed. Schlüter, p. 15.
119. Ibid., pp. 55-66; Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen," pp. 105-06. On Mackenroth see Gabi Einsele, " 'Kein Vaterland': Deutsche Studentinnen in Zürcher Exil," in Pionierinnen, ed. Schlüter, p. 15.
120. Ibid., pp. 55-66; Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen," pp. 105-06. On Mackenroth see Gabi Einsele, " 'Kein Vaterland': Deutsche Studentinnen in Zürcher Exil," in Pionierinnen, ed. Schlüter, p. 15.
121. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 47-48; Streiter, "Die Rechts-und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," p. 178.
122. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, pp. 47-48; Streiter, "Die Rechts-und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," p. 178.
123. Leslie Howsam, "Eliza Orme," in Dictionary of National Biography: Missing Persons (Oxford, 1993), pp. 505-06; Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" pp. 45-49, quotations on p. 46; J. H. Baker, "University College and Legal Education, 1826-1976," Current Legal Problems 30 (1977): 7. Baker, as well as several other sources, incorrectly state that no woman got a law degree from London until 1917.
124. Leslie Howsam, "Eliza Orme," in Dictionary of National
125. Leslie Howsam, "Eliza Orme," in Dictionary of National Biography: Missing Persons (Oxford, 1993), pp. 505-06; Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,'" pp. 45-49, quotations on p. 46; J. H. Baker, "University College and Legal Education, 1826-1976," Current Legal Problems 30 (1977): 7. Baker, as well as several other sources, incorrectly state that no woman got a law degree from London until 1917.
126. Michael Birks, Gentlemen of the Law (London, 1960), p. 276; Richard L. Abel, The Legal Profession in England and Wales (Oxford, 1988), p. 173; letter of Jessie Wright, 13 April 1888, printed in Drachman, Women Lawyers, pp. 142-45. Orme may have meant, of course, that she had not tried to become a barrister.
127. Michael Birks, Gentlemen of the Law (London, 1960), p. 276; Richard L. Abel, The Legal Profession in England and Wales (Oxford, 1988), p. 173; letter of Jessie Wright, 13 April 1888, printed in Drachman, Women Lawyers, pp. 142-45. Orme may have meant, of course, that she had not tried to become a barrister.
128. Michael Birks, Gentlemen of the Law (London, 1960), p. 276; Richard L. Abel, The Legal Profession in England and Wales (Oxford, 1988), p. 173; letter of Jessie Wright, 13 April 1888, printed in Drachman, Women Lawyers, pp. 142-45. Orme may have meant, of course, that she had not tried to become a barrister.
129. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 66-67; William A. W. Jarvis, "Cornelia Sorabji," Dictionary of National Biography, 1951-1960 (Oxford, 1971), pp. 907-09. Sorabji returned to India to help women in purdah who could not consult male lawyers.
130. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 66-67; William A. W. Jarvis, "Cornelia Sorabji," Dictionary of National Biography, 1951-1960 (Oxford, 1971), pp. 907-09. Sorabji returned to India to help women in purdah who could not consult male lawyers.
131. W. C. Richardson, A History of the Inns of Court (Baton Rouge, 1976), p. 355; Elsie Lang, British Women in the Twentieth Century (London, 1929), pp. 145-46; Hazel Fox, "Ivy Williams," Dictionary of National Biography, 1961-1970 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 1,081-82.
132. W. C. Richardson, A History of the Inns of Court (Baton Rouge, 1976), p. 355; Elsie Lang, British Women in the Twentieth Century (London, 1929), pp. 145-46; Hazel Fox, "Ivy Williams," Dictionary of National Biography, 1961-1970 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 1,081-82.
133. W. C. Richardson, A History of the Inns of Court (Baton Rouge, 1976), p. 355; Elsie Lang, British Women in the Twentieth Century (London, 1929), pp. 145-46; Hazel Fox, "Ivy Williams," Dictionary of National Biography, 1961-1970 (Oxford, 1981), pp. 1,081-82.
134. Birks, Gentlemen of the Law, pp. 276-77; Lang, British Women, pp. 146-50, 158, 164.
135. Birks, Gentlemen of the Law, pp. 276-77; Lang, British Women, pp. 146-50, 158, 164.
136. Charrier, L'évolution, p. 457; Fox, "Ivy Williams," p. 1,081; Jarvis, "Cornelia Sorabji," p. 908.
137. Charrier, L'évolution, p. 457; Fox, "Ivy Williams," p. 1,081; Jarvis, "Cornelia Sorabji," p. 908.
138. Charrier, L'évolution, p. 457; Fox, "Ivy Williams," p. 1,081; Jarvis, "Cornelia Sorabji," p. 908.
139. On the Russian system, see Levin-Stankevich, "The Transfer of Legal Technology"; and Eugene Huskey, Russian Lawyers and the Soviet State: The Origins and Development of the Soviet Bar, 1917-1939 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 12-26.
140. On the Russian system, see Levin-Stankevich, "The Transfer of Legal Technology"; and Eugene Huskey, Russian Lawyers and the Soviet State: The Origins and Development of the Soviet Bar, 1917-1939 (Princeton, 1986), pp. 12-26.
141. The clearest account is in Ruth Arlene Fluck Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education in Russia, 1855-1905," (Ph. D. diss., George Washington University, 1975), pp. 161-66. See also Marie Zebrikoff, "Russia," in The Woman Question in Europe, ed. Theodore Stanton (New York, 1884), p. 417; and Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women, p. 155. Dudgeon calls the private advocates "solicitors," which is not the term employed by the sources cited in note 51.
142. The clearest account is in Ruth Arlene Fluck Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education in Russia, 1855-1905," (Ph. D. diss., George Washington University, 1975), pp. 161-66. See also Marie Zebrikoff, "Russia," in The Woman Question in Europe, ed. Theodore Stanton (New York, 1884), p. 417; and Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women, p. 155. Dudgeon calls the private advocates "solicitors," which is not the term employed by the sources cited in note 51.
143. The clearest account is in Ruth Arlene Fluck Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education in Russia, 1855-1905," (Ph. D. diss., George Washington University, 1975), pp. 161-66. See also Marie Zebrikoff, "Russia," in The Woman Question in Europe, ed. Theodore Stanton (New York, 1884), p. 417; and Ostrogorskii, The Rights of Women, p. 155. Dudgeon calls the private advocates "solicitors," which is not the term employed by the sources cited in note 51.
144. Renate Drucker, "Zur Vorgeschichte des Frauenstudiums an der Universität Leipzig," in Vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, ed. Hellmut Kretschmar (Berlin, 1956), p. 280. Drucker germanizes the spelling. Dudgeon mentions a second Russian woman, F. M. Kaufmann, with a foreign law degree in the 1870s; but I have been unable to trace her: "Women and Higher Education," p. 166.
145. Renate Drucker, "Zur Vorgeschichte des Frauenstudiums an der Universität Leipzig," in Vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, ed. Hellmut Kretschmar (Berlin, 1956), p. 280. Drucker germanizes the spelling. Dudgeon mentions a second Russian woman, F. M. Kaufmann, with a foreign law degree in the 1870s; but I have been unable to trace her: "Women and Higher Education," p. 166.
146. Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education," pp. 166-67; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. xvii; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechstanwalt," p. 479.
147. Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education," pp. 166-67; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. xvii; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechstanwalt," p. 479.
148. Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education," pp. 166-67; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. xvii; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechstanwalt," p. 479.
149. Linda Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 1900-1917 (Stanford, 1983), pp. 147-48; Richard Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism (Princeton, 1978), pp. 175-76. Stites conflates the two bills.
150. Linda Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 1900-1917 (Stanford, 1983), pp. 147-48; Richard Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism (Princeton, 1978), pp. 175-76. Stites conflates the two bills.
151. Huskey, Russian Lawyers, pp. 31-32.
152. After 1901 in Prussia, graduates of other secondary schools could study law if they obtained "the linguistic and technical knowledge necessary for a clear understanding of Roman law," but the overwhelming majority of law students continued to come from the classical schools: see James C. Albisetti, Secondary School Reform in Imperial Germany (Princeton, 1983), pp. 286, 289.
153. Hannes Siegrist, "Public Office or Free Profession? German Attorneys in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," in German Professions, ed. Cocks and Jarausch, pp. 46-65, quotation on p. 63. See also Kenneth Ledford, From General Estate to Special Interest: German Lawyers, 1878-1933 (Cambridge, 1996); and Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession."
154. Hannes Siegrist, "Public Office or Free Profession? German Attorneys in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," in German Professions, ed. Cocks and Jarausch, pp. 46-65, quotation on p. 63. See also Kenneth Ledford, From General Estate to Special Interest: German Lawyers, 1878-1933 (Cambridge, 1996); and Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession."
155. Hannes Siegrist, "Public Office or Free Profession? German Attorneys in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," in German Professions, ed. Cocks and Jarausch, pp. 46-65, quotation on p. 63. See also Kenneth Ledford, From General Estate to Special Interest: German Lawyers, 1878-1933 (Cambridge, 1996); and Ledford, "Conflict within the Legal Profession."
156. Drucker, "Vorgeschichte," p. 280.
157. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 160-62; Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage, pp. 44-96, passim.
158. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 160-62; Berneike, Die Frauenfrage ist Rechtsfrage, pp. 44-96, passim.
159. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 232, 246; Hiltrud Häntzschel, "Justifiaeine Frau? Bayerische Positionen einer Geschlechtsdebatte," in Bedrohlich gescheit, ed. Häntschel and Bussmann, p. 198; Drucker, "Vorgeschichte," p. 287.
160. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 232, 246; Hiltrud Häntzschel, "Justifiaeine Frau? Bayerische Positionen einer Geschlechtsdebatte," in Bedrohlich gescheit, ed. Häntschel and Bussmann, p. 198; Drucker, "Vorgeschichte," p. 287.
161. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 232, 246; Hiltrud Häntzschel, "Justifiaeine Frau? Bayerische Positionen einer Geschlechtsdebatte," in Bedrohlich gescheit, ed. Häntschel and Bussmann, p. 198; Drucker, "Vorgeschichte," p. 287.
162. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 247-48; Häntzschel, "Justitia," pp. 200-02; Margarethe Freiin von Erffa, "Die Frau als Rechtsanwalt," in Die Kultur der Frau, ed. Ada Schmidt-Beil (Berlin, 1931), p. 207.
163. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 247-48; Häntzschel, "Justitia," pp. 200-02; Margarethe Freiin von Erffa, "Die Frau als Rechtsanwalt," in Die Kultur der Frau, ed. Ada Schmidt-Beil (Berlin, 1931), p. 207.
164. Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, pp. 247-48; Häntzschel, "Justitia," pp. 200-02; Margarethe Freiin von Erffa, "Die Frau als Rechtsanwalt," in Die Kultur der Frau, ed. Ada Schmidt-Beil (Berlin, 1931), p. 207.
165. Ledford, From General Estate, pp. 166-68, 280-82; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," pp. 475-77; Vera Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter (Freiburg, 1933). See more generally Stephan Bajohr and Kathrin Rödiger-Bajohr, "Die Diskriminierung der Juristin in Deutschland bis 1945," Kritische Justiz 13 (1980): 39-50; and Deutscher Juristinnenbund, ed., Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation, 1900-1984 (Munich, 1984).
166. Ledford, From General Estate, pp. 166-68, 280-82; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," pp. 475-77; Vera Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter (Freiburg, 1933). See more generally Stephan Bajohr and Kathrin Rödiger-Bajohr, "Die Diskriminierung der Juristin in Deutschland bis 1945," Kritische Justiz 13 (1980): 39-50; and Deutscher Juristinnenbund, ed., Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation, 1900-1984 (Munich, 1984).
167. Ledford, From General Estate, pp. 166-68, 280-82; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," pp. 475-77; Vera Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter (Freiburg, 1933). See more generally Stephan Bajohr and Kathrin Rödiger-Bajohr, "Die Diskriminierung der Juristin in Deutschland bis 1945," Kritische Justiz 13 (1980): 39-50; and Deutscher Juristinnenbund, ed., Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation, 1900-1984 (Munich, 1984).
168. Ledford, From General Estate, pp. 166-68, 280-82; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," pp. 475-77; Vera Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter (Freiburg, 1933). See more generally Stephan Bajohr and Kathrin Rödiger-Bajohr, "Die Diskriminierung der Juristin in Deutschland bis 1945," Kritische Justiz 13 (1980): 39-50; and Deutscher Juristinnenbund, ed., Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation, 1900-1984 (Munich, 1984).
169. Ledford, From General Estate, pp. 166-68, 280-82; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," pp. 475-77; Vera Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter (Freiburg, 1933). See more generally Stephan Bajohr and Kathrin Rödiger-Bajohr, "Die Diskriminierung der Juristin in Deutschland bis 1945," Kritische Justiz 13 (1980): 39-50; and Deutscher Juristinnenbund, ed., Juristinnen in Deutschland: Eine Dokumentation, 1900-1984 (Munich, 1984).
170. Häntzschel, "Justitia," p. 213. The best study of professional women in the Nazi era is Claudia Huerkamp, Bildungsbürgerinnen: Frauen im Studium und in akademischen Berufen, 1900-1945 (Göttingen, 1996), on lawyers esp. pp. 287-96.
171. Häntzschel, "Justitia," p. 213. The best study of professional women in the Nazi era is Claudia Huerkamp, Bildungsbürgerinnen: Frauen im Studium und in akademischen Berufen, 1900-1945 (Göttingen, 1996), on lawyers esp. pp. 287-96.
172. For a brief survey of educational opportunities for Austrian women, see James C. Albisetti, "Female Education in German-Speaking Austria, Germany, and Switzerland, 1866-1914," in Austrian Women in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Good, Margarete Grandner, and Mary Jo Maynes (Providence and Oxford, 1996), pp. 39-57.
173. Martha Forkl and Elisabeth Koffmahn, eds., Frauenstudium und akademische Frauenarbeit in Österreich (Vienna, 1968),esp. pp. 17-29; Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 277-79; Edmund Bernatzik, Die Zulassung der Frauen zu den juristischen Studien (Vienna, 1900). For a less favorable response, see Maria Steibl, "Frauenstudium in Österreich bis 1945, dargestellt am Beispiel der Innsbrücker Studentinnen," (inaug. diss., University of Innsbruck, 1987), pp. 60-66.
174. Martha Forkl and Elisabeth Koffmahn, eds., Frauenstudium und akademische Frauenarbeit in Österreich (Vienna, 1968),esp. pp. 17-29; Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 277-79; Edmund Bernatzik, Die Zulassung der Frauen zu den juristischen Studien (Vienna, 1900). For a less favorable response, see Maria Steibl, "Frauenstudium in Österreich bis 1945, dargestellt am Beispiel der Innsbrücker Studentinnen," (inaug. diss., University of Innsbruck, 1987), pp. 60-66.
175. Martha Forkl and Elisabeth Koffmahn, eds., Frauenstudium und akademische Frauenarbeit in Österreich (Vienna, 1968),esp. pp. 17-29; Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 277-79; Edmund Bernatzik, Die Zulassung der Frauen zu den juristischen Studien (Vienna, 1900). For a less favorable response, see Maria Steibl, "Frauenstudium in Österreich bis 1945, dargestellt am Beispiel der Innsbrücker Studentinnen," (inaug. diss., University of Innsbruck, 1987), pp. 60-66.
176. Martha Forkl and Elisabeth Koffmahn, eds., Frauenstudium und akademische Frauenarbeit in Österreich (Vienna, 1968),esp. pp. 17-29; Tichy, "Zur Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 277-79; Edmund Bernatzik, Die Zulassung der Frauen zu den juristischen Studien (Vienna, 1900). For a less favorable response, see Maria Steibl, "Frauenstudium in Österreich bis 1945, dargestellt am Beispiel der Innsbrücker Studentinnen," (inaug. diss., University of Innsbruck, 1987), pp. 60-66.
177. See, for example, Anna Lind, "Das Frauenstudium in Österreich, Deutschland und der Schweiz," (law diss., University of Vienna, 1961), pp. 87-88. I know of no archival research explaining the government's decision.
178. Jahresbericht des Vereins für erweiterte Frauenbildung Wiens 21 (1908-09): 24-25; Tichy, "Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 279-82.
179. Jahresbericht des Vereins für erweiterte Frauenbildung Wiens 21 (1908-09): 24-25; Tichy, "Geschichte des rechtswissenschaftlichen Studiums," pp. 279-82.
180. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 150; Austria, Bundesministerium für Justiz, Beiträge zum Thema: Die Juristin in die Justiz (Vienna, 1969), pp. 75-76; Ulrike D̈cker, "Das gelebte Pathos: Bürgerliche Männlichkeitsideale und Männerpraktiken in der (Berufs-)Welt von Advokaten,̈ in Margret Friedrich and Peter Urbanitsch, eds., Von Bürger und ihre Frauen (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 1996), pp. 116-17.
181. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 150; Austria, Bundesministerium für Justiz, Beiträge zum Thema: Die Juristin in die Justiz (Vienna, 1969), pp. 75-76; Ulrike D̈cker, "Das gelebte Pathos: Bürgerliche Männlichkeitsideale und Männerpraktiken in der (Berufs-)Welt von Advokaten,̈ in Margret Friedrich and Peter Urbanitsch, eds., Von Bürger und ihre Frauen (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 1996), pp. 116-17.
182. Addeo, Eva togata, p. 150; Austria, Bundesministerium für Justiz, Beiträge zum Thema: Die Juristin in die Justiz (Vienna, 1969), pp. 75-76; Ulrike D̈cker, "Das gelebte Pathos: Bürgerliche Männlichkeitsideale und Männerpraktiken in der (Berufs-)Welt von Advokaten,̈ in Margret Friedrich and Peter Urbanitsch, eds., Von Bürger und ihre Frauen (Vienna, Cologne, and Weimar, 1996), pp. 116-17.
183. These are treated more briefly because of the limited source material available in languages the author reads.
184. Siegrist, Advokat, p. 444; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 100-104; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 477-78; Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-49; Ingrid Bohn, "Einsamkeit und Freiheit: Die Anfänge akademischer Bildung für Frauen, das Beispiel Schwedens," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 47 (1999): 20-21.
185. Siegrist, Advokat, p. 444; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 100-104; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 477-78; Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-49; Ingrid Bohn, "Einsamkeit und Freiheit: Die Anfänge akademischer Bildung für Frauen, das Beispiel Schwedens," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 47 (1999): 20-21.
186. Siegrist, Advokat, p. 444; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 100-104; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 477-78; Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-49; Ingrid Bohn, "Einsamkeit und Freiheit: Die Anfänge akademischer Bildung für Frauen, das Beispiel Schwedens," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 47 (1999): 20-21.
187. Siegrist, Advokat, p. 444; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 100-104; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 477-78; Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-49; Ingrid Bohn, "Einsamkeit und Freiheit: Die Anfänge akademischer Bildung für Frauen, das Beispiel Schwedens," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 47 (1999): 20-21.
188. Siegrist, Advokat, p. 444; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 100-104; Charrier, L'évolution, pp. 477-78; Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-49; Ingrid Bohn, "Einsamkeit und Freiheit: Die Anfänge akademischer Bildung für Frauen, das Beispiel Schwedens," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 47 (1999): 20-21.
189. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 105-06; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 147.
190. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 105-06; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 147.
191. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 106; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 467.
192. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 106; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 467.
193. Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, p. 153; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 98; Inga Dahlsgard, Women In Denmark: Yesterday and Today, trans. Geoffrey French (Copenhagen, 1980), p. 112.
194. Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, p. 153; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 98; Inga Dahlsgard, Women In Denmark: Yesterday and Today, trans. Geoffrey French (Copenhagen, 1980), p. 112.
195. Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, p. 153; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 98; Inga Dahlsgard, Women In Denmark: Yesterday and Today, trans. Geoffrey French (Copenhagen, 1980), p. 112.
196. Charrier, L'évolution, p. 441; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 33.
197. Charrier, L'évolution, p. 441; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 33.
198. Cahiers féministes, 15 March 1899, p. 2; ibid., 1 May 1903, p. 2; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 148. Elisabeth van Dorp had numerous publications, including a book in English: A Simple Theory of Capital, Wages, and Profit or Loss (London, 1937). See also the reminiscences of another Dutch attorney, Estella Simons, "Kurzes Lebensbild," in Führende Frauen Europas, ed. Elga Kern (Munich, 1930), pp. 104-07.
199. Cahiers féministes, 15 March 1899, p. 2; ibid., 1 May 1903, p. 2; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 148. Elisabeth van Dorp had numerous publications, including a book in English: A Simple Theory of Capital, Wages, and Profit or Loss (London, 1937). See also the reminiscences of another Dutch attorney, Estella Simons, "Kurzes Lebensbild," in Führende Frauen Europas, ed. Elga Kern (Munich, 1930), pp. 104-07.
200. Cahiers féministes, 15 March 1899, p. 2; ibid., 1 May 1903, p. 2; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 148. Elisabeth van Dorp had numerous publications, including a book in English: A Simple Theory of Capital, Wages, and Profit or Loss (London, 1937). See also the reminiscences of another Dutch attorney, Estella Simons, "Kurzes Lebensbild," in Führende Frauen Europas, ed. Elga Kern (Munich, 1930), pp. 104-07.
201. Cahiers féministes, 15 March 1899, p. 2; ibid., 1 May 1903, p. 2; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 148. Elisabeth van Dorp had numerous publications, including a book in English: A Simple Theory of Capital, Wages, and Profit or Loss (London, 1937). See also the reminiscences of another Dutch attorney, Estella Simons, "Kurzes Lebensbild," in Führende Frauen Europas, ed. Elga Kern (Munich, 1930), pp. 104-07.
202. Cahiers féministes, 15 March 1899, p. 2; ibid., 1 May 1903, p. 2; Addeo, Eva togata, p. 148. Elisabeth van Dorp had numerous publications, including a book in English: A Simple Theory of Capital, Wages, and Profit or Loss (London, 1937). See also the reminiscences of another Dutch attorney, Estella Simons, "Kurzes Lebensbild," in Führende Frauen Europas, ed. Elga Kern (Munich, 1930), pp. 104-07.
203. Charrier, L'évoution, pp. 472, 442; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," p. 480.
204. Charrier, L'évoution, pp. 472, 442; Erffa and Richarz-Simon, "Der weibliche Rechtsanwalt," p. 480.
205. Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-51; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 473.
206. Addeo, Eva togata, pp. 148-51; Charrier, L'évolution, p. 473.
207. Algardi, La donna e la toga, pp. 34-35; Virginia Paskaleva, "L'émancipation professionelle et socio-politique de la bulgare du debut du XXe siècle à la deuxième guerre mondiale," Études historiques 14 (1990): 141, 145; Kovâcs, Politics of the Legal Profession, p. 1.
208. Algardi, La donna e la toga, pp. 34-35; Virginia Paskaleva, "L'émancipation professionelle et socio-politique de la bulgare du debut du XXe siècle à la deuxième guerre mondiale," Études historiques 14 (1990): 141, 145; Kovâcs, Politics of the Legal Profession, p. 1.
209. Algardi, La donna e la toga, pp. 34-35; Virginia Paskaleva, "L'émancipation professionelle et socio-politique de la bulgare du debut du XXe siècle à la deuxième guerre mondiale," Études historiques 14 (1990): 141, 145; Kovâcs, Politics of the Legal Profession, p. 1.
210. Chauvin, Étude historique, esp. pp. 239-47; Santoni-di Sio, La donna; Frank, La femme-avocat (I) and (II); Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, pp. 143-53. On Frank, see Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge," Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 4 (1973): 377-92.
211. Chauvin, Étude historique, esp. pp. 239-47; Santoni-di Sio, La donna; Frank, La femme-avocat (I) and (II); Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, pp. 143-53. On Frank, see Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge," Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 4 (1973): 377-92.
212. Chauvin, Étude historique, esp. pp. 239-47; Santoni-di Sio, La donna; Frank, La femme-avocat (I) and (II); Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, pp. 143-53. On Frank, see Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge," Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 4 (1973): 377-92.
213. Chauvin, Étude historique, esp. pp. 239-47; Santoni-di Sio, La donna; Frank, La femme-avocat (I) and (II); Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, pp. 143-53. On Frank, see Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge," Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 4 (1973): 377-92.
214. Chauvin, Étude historique, esp. pp. 239-47; Santoni-di Sio, La donna; Frank, La femme-avocat (I) and (II); Ostrogorskii, Rights of Women, pp. 143-53. On Frank, see Françoise de Bueger-van Lierde, "Louis Frank, pionnier du mouvement féministe belge," Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine 4 (1973): 377-92.
215. Kempin's arguments to the court are reprinted in Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen," pp. 107-12; and in Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, appendix.
216. Kempin's arguments to the court are reprinted in Stadler-Labhart, "Erste Studentinnen," pp. 107-12; and in Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, appendix.
217. Drachman, Sisters in Law, appendix 1. It is not clear if Adolphine Kok had to argue her case in the Netherlands, or was simply allowed to register.
218. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 43; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71; Lang, British Women, pp. 146, 148; Jean Signorel, La femme-avocat (Toulouse, 1894), p. 46.
219. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 43; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71; Lang, British Women, pp. 146, 148; Jean Signorel, La femme-avocat (Toulouse, 1894), p. 46.
220. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 43; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71; Lang, British Women, pp. 146, 148; Jean Signorel, La femme-avocat (Toulouse, 1894), p. 46.
221. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 43; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71; Lang, British Women, pp. 146, 148; Jean Signorel, La femme-avocat (Toulouse, 1894), p. 46.
222. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
223. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
224. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
225. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
226. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
227. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 172; Chauvin, Étude historique, p. 9; Viviani in France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Vandervelde cited in Cahiers féministes, 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); Henri LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau (Brussels, 1901), pp. 7-8; Helena Migerka, "Die Zulassung der Frauen zum Rechtsstudium," Frauenleben 12, no. 5 (May 1900): 2.
228. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 39, 43, 65, 137, 53; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 81, 83; August Forel, Rückblick auf mein Leben (Zurich, 1935), p. 190; Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 14.
229. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 39, 43, 65, 137, 53; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 81, 83; August Forel, Rückblick auf mein Leben (Zurich, 1935), p. 190; Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 14.
230. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 39, 43, 65, 137, 53; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 81, 83; August Forel, Rückblick auf mein Leben (Zurich, 1935), p. 190; Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 14.
231. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 39, 43, 65, 137, 53; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. 81, 83; August Forel, Rückblick auf mein Leben (Zurich, 1935), p. 190; Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 14.
232. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 3, 68, 87; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 287; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (May 1913): 689.
233. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 3, 68, 87; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 287; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (May 1913): 689.
234. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 3, 68, 87; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 287; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (May 1913): 689.
235. Santoni-di Sio did indicate that he was going to write a second volume on the "social," as opposed to the "legal," aspects of female attorneys; but he never did so. From his summary of its intended contents, however, it does not appear that he planned to raise such issues: La donna, pp. ix-x.
236. Madame Potonie-Pierre in Congrès français et international du Droit des Femmes (Paris, 1889), p. 218.
237. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 62; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. xv, 140, 162.
238. Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 62; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), pp. xv, 140, 162.
239. Popelin in Women in Professions, Being the Professional Section of the International Congress of Women, London, July 1899 (London, 1900), pp. 13-14; "Madame Chauvin et Monsieur Magnaud," Cahiers féministes 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); LaFontaine, La femme, p. 12; Lang, British Women, p. 150.
240. Popelin in Women in Professions, Being the Professional Section of the International Congress of Women, London, July 1899 (London, 1900), pp. 13-14; "Madame Chauvin et Monsieur Magnaud," Cahiers féministes 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); LaFontaine, La femme, p. 12; Lang, British Women, p. 150.
241. Popelin in Women in Professions, Being the Professional Section of the International Congress of Women, London, July 1899 (London, 1900), pp. 13-14; "Madame Chauvin et Monsieur Magnaud," Cahiers féministes 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); LaFontaine, La femme, p. 12; Lang, British Women, p. 150.
242. Popelin in Women in Professions, Being the Professional Section of the International Congress of Women, London, July 1899 (London, 1900), pp. 13-14; "Madame Chauvin et Monsieur Magnaud," Cahiers féministes 6, no. 1 (1 March 1901); LaFontaine, La femme, p. 12; Lang, British Women, p. 150.
243. Joyce Antler has pointed out that arguments about special needs and/or talents also played a secondary role in campaigns to open the American bar: The Educated Woman and Professionalization: The Struggle for a New Feminine Identity, 1880-1920 (New York, 1987), p. 267.
244. Howsam, " 'Sound-Minded Women,' " p. 52.
245. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 11-12; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71.
246. Santoni-di Sio, La donna, pp. 11-12; Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 71.
247. Lucien Leduc, La femme devant la parlement: Étude du féminisme et des projets de loi relatifs à l'extension des droits de la femme (Paris, 1898), p. 304.
248. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Gourju cited in Charrier, L'évolution, p. 344; "Of the Admission of Women to the Legal Profession: A Word in Favor, by a Solicitor," Englishwoman 9 (Jan.-Mar. 1911): 299.
249. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Gourju cited in Charrier, L'évolution, p. 344; "Of the Admission of Women to the Legal Profession: A Word in Favor, by a Solicitor," Englishwoman 9 (Jan.-Mar. 1911): 299.
250. Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Gourju cited in Charrier, L'évolution, p. 344; "Of the Admission of Women to the Legal Profession: A Word in Favor, by a Solicitor," Englishwoman 9 (Jan.-Mar. 1911): 299.
251. Gabba cited in Franca Pieroni-Bortolotti, Alle origini del movimento femminile in Italia, 1848-1892 (Turin, 1963), p. 122; Gierke in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 26; "Women and the Bar," The Spectator 91 (1903): 1,017.
252. Gabba cited in Franca Pieroni-Bortolotti, Alle origini del movimento femminile in Italia, 1848-1892 (Turin, 1963), p. 122; Gierke in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 26; "Women and the Bar," The Spectator 91 (1903): 1,017.
253. Gabba cited in Franca Pieroni-Bortolotti, Alle origini del movimento femminile in Italia, 1848-1892 (Turin, 1963), p. 122; Gierke in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 26; "Women and the Bar," The Spectator 91 (1903): 1,017.
254. Francis Xavier Godts, Erreurs et crimes en fait d'éducation: le féminisme condamné par les principes de théologie et de philosophie (Roulers, 1903), pp. 10, 218, 281.
255. Marcus Reed, "Is Portia Possible?" MacMilian's Magazine, n. s., 1 (1906): 382, 377;
256. Charles Turgeon, Le féminisme français (2 vols.; Paris, 1902), p. 460.
257. Kempin in Drachman, Women Lawyers, p. 105; Lacomblé cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 17; Lang, British Women, p. 149; Arthur Baumann, "The Future of the Bar," The Nineteenth Century and After 81 (March 1917): 630.
258. Kempin in Drachman, Women Lawyers, p. 105; Lacomblé cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 17; Lang, British Women, p. 149; Arthur Baumann, "The Future of the Bar," The Nineteenth Century and After 81 (March 1917): 630.
259. Kempin in Drachman, Women Lawyers, p. 105; Lacomblé cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 17; Lang, British Women, p. 149; Arthur Baumann, "The Future of the Bar," The Nineteenth Century and After 81 (March 1917): 630.
260. Kempin in Drachman, Women Lawyers, p. 105; Lacomblé cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 17; Lang, British Women, p. 149; Arthur Baumann, "The Future of the Bar," The Nineteenth Century and After 81 (March 1917): 630.
261. Kempin in Drachman, Women Lawyers, p. 105; Lacomblé cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Algardi, La donna e la toga, p. 17; Lang, British Women, p. 149; Arthur Baumann, "The Future of the Bar," The Nineteenth Century and After 81 (March 1917): 630.
262. Julius Caduff, Über Emancipation der Frauen: Ein Vortrag (Chur, 1868), p. 10; Destrée cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Turgeon, Le féminisme français, 1: 464; Lang, British Women, p. 155; Franz, English Women, p. 275.
263. Julius Caduff, Über Emancipation der Frauen: Ein Vortrag (Chur, 1868), p. 10; Destrée cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Turgeon, Le féminisme français, 1: 464; Lang, British Women, p. 155; Franz, English Women, p. 275.
264. Julius Caduff, Über Emancipation der Frauen: Ein Vortrag (Chur, 1868), p. 10; Destrée cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Turgeon, Le féminisme français, 1: 464; Lang, British Women, p. 155; Franz, English Women, p. 275.
265. Julius Caduff, Über Emancipation der Frauen: Ein Vortrag (Chur, 1868), p. 10; Destrée cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Turgeon, Le féminisme français, 1: 464; Lang, British Women, p. 155; Franz, English Women, p. 275.
266. Julius Caduff, Über Emancipation der Frauen: Ein Vortrag (Chur, 1868), p. 10; Destrée cited in Frank, La femme-avocat (II), p. 81; Turgeon, Le féminisme français, 1: 464; Lang, British Women, p. 155; Franz, English Women, p. 275.
267. Laband in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 29; Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter, pp. 66-70; Josef T. Goldberger, "Vom Berufe der Frauen unserer Zeit für die Rechtspflege," Die Frau 26 (1918-19): 276.
268. Laband in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 29; Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter, pp. 66-70; Josef T. Goldberger, "Vom Berufe der Frauen unserer Zeit für die Rechtspflege," Die Frau 26 (1918-19): 276.
269. Laband in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 29; Lowitsch, Die Frau als Richter, pp. 66-70; Josef T. Goldberger, "Vom Berufe der Frauen unserer Zeit für die Rechtspflege," Die Frau 26 (1918-19): 276.
270. Siegrist is highly skeptical of much of the rhetoric about overcrowding, even in Germany; see Advokat, p. 432.
271. Agostino Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, ed. Jessie White Mario (Florence, 1890), p. 301; Leduc, La femme devant le parlement, p. 19; LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau, p. 17; E. Zürcher, " Die öffentliche rechtliche Stellung der Frau," in Die Frauenbewegung in der Schweiz, ed. Pestalozzigesellschaft (Zurich, 1902), pp. 38-39; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (1913): 692.
272. Agostino Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, ed. Jessie White Mario (Florence, 1890), p. 301; Leduc, La femme devant le parlement, p. 19; LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau, p. 17; E. Zürcher, " Die öffentliche rechtliche Stellung der Frau," in Die Frauenbewegung in der Schweiz, ed. Pestalozzigesellschaft (Zurich, 1902), pp. 38-39; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (1913): 692.
273. Agostino Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, ed. Jessie White Mario (Florence, 1890), p. 301; Leduc, La femme devant le parlement, p. 19; LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau, p. 17; E. Zürcher, " Die öffentliche rechtliche Stellung der Frau," in Die Frauenbewegung in der Schweiz, ed. Pestalozzigesellschaft (Zurich, 1902), pp. 38-39; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (1913): 692.
274. Agostino Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, ed. Jessie White Mario (Florence, 1890), p. 301; Leduc, La femme devant le parlement, p. 19; LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau, p. 17; E. Zürcher, " Die öffentliche rechtliche Stellung der Frau," in Die Frauenbewegung in der Schweiz, ed. Pestalozzigesellschaft (Zurich, 1902), pp. 38-39; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (1913): 692.
275. Agostino Bertani, Scritti e discorsi, ed. Jessie White Mario (Florence, 1890), p. 301; Leduc, La femme devant le parlement, p. 19; LaFontaine, La femme et le barreau, p. 17; E. Zürcher, " Die öffentliche rechtliche Stellung der Frau," in Die Frauenbewegung in der Schweiz, ed. Pestalozzigesellschaft (Zurich, 1902), pp. 38-39; Holford Knight, "Women and the Legal Profession," Contemporary Review 103 (1913): 692.
276. Reed, "Is Portia Possible?" p. 382; Marghieri cited in Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 40; De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p.1,132; Lang, British Women, p. 163.
277. Reed, "Is Portia Possible?" p. 382; Marghieri cited in Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 40; De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p.1,132; Lang, British Women, p. 163.
278. Reed, "Is Portia Possible?" p. 382; Marghieri cited in Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 40; De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p.1,132; Lang, British Women, p. 163.
279. Reed, "Is Portia Possible?" p. 382; Marghieri cited in Santoni-di Sio, La donna, p. 40; De Bueger-van Lierde, "A l'origine," p.1,132; Lang, British Women, p. 163.
280. I am not sure where this cartoon appeared first. It is reproduced, with a German caption, in Eda Sagarra, An introduction to Nineteenth-Century Germany (Harlow, 1980), p. 249.
281. Bar in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 19; protocol of Prussian Ministry of State for 13 April 1905 in Geheimes Preussisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Merseburg, Rep. 90a, Abt. B, III 2b, No. 6, Vol. 150; Erna von Langsdorff, "Die Berufsaussichten der Juristin in Deutschland," Die Frau 20 (1892-93): 608; Ludwig Wahrmund, Akademische Plaudereien zur Frauenfrage (Innsbruck, 1901), p. 106.
282. Bar in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 19; protocol of Prussian Ministry of State for 13 April 1905 in Geheimes Preussisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Merseburg, Rep. 90a, Abt. B, III 2b, No. 6, Vol. 150; Erna von Langsdorff, "Die Berufsaussichten der Juristin in Deutschland," Die Frau 20 (1892-93): 608; Ludwig Wahrmund, Akademische Plaudereien zur Frauenfrage (Innsbruck, 1901), p. 106.
283. Bar in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 19; protocol of Prussian Ministry of State for 13 April 1905 in Geheimes Preussisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Merseburg, Rep. 90a, Abt. B, III 2b, No. 6, Vol. 150; Erna von Langsdorff, "Die Berufsaussichten der Juristin in Deutschland," Die Frau 20 (1892-93): 608; Ludwig Wahrmund, Akademische Plaudereien zur Frauenfrage (Innsbruck, 1901), p. 106.
284. Bar in Kirchhoff, Die akademische Frau, p. 19; protocol of Prussian Ministry of State for 13 April 1905 in Geheimes Preussisches Staatsarchiv, Abteilung Merseburg, Rep. 90a, Abt. B, III 2b, No. 6, Vol. 150; Erna von Langsdorff, "Die Berufsaussichten der Juristin in Deutschland," Die Frau 20 (1892-93): 608; Ludwig Wahrmund, Akademische Plaudereien zur Frauenfrage (Innsbruck, 1901), p. 106.
285. Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 16; France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 38. See the similar views expressed by judges in Illinois in 1869 and Wisconsin in 1875, cited in D. Kelly Weisberg, "Barred from the Bar: Women and Legal Education in the United States, 1870-1890," Journal of Legal Education 28 (1977): 488.
286. Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 16; France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 38. See the similar views expressed by judges in Illinois in 1869 and Wisconsin in 1875, cited in D. Kelly Weisberg, "Barred from the Bar: Women and Legal Education in the United States, 1870-1890," Journal of Legal Education 28 (1977): 488.
287. Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 16; France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 38. See the similar views expressed by judges in Illinois in 1869 and Wisconsin in 1875, cited in D. Kelly Weisberg, "Barred from the Bar: Women and Legal Education in the United States, 1870-1890," Journal of Legal Education 28 (1977): 488.
288. Taricone, Teresa Labriola, p. 16; France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,764; Delfosse, Emilie Kempin-Spyri, p. 38. See the similar views expressed by judges in Illinois in 1869 and Wisconsin in 1875, cited in D. Kelly Weisberg, "Barred from the Bar: Women and Legal Education in the United States, 1870-1890," Journal of Legal Education 28 (1977): 488.
289. Information in this paragraph comes from Richard J. Evans, The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America, and Australasia, 1840-1920 (London and New York, 1977), pp. 218-24; and Lynne Brakeman and Susan Gall, eds., Chronology of Women Worldwide (Detroit, 1997). Note that Belgium in 1919 granted the vote only to widows and mothers of war victims, Portugal in 1931 to women with a secondary education.
290. Information in this paragraph comes from Richard J. Evans, The Feminists: Women's Emancipation Movements in Europe, America, and Australasia, 1840-1920 (London and New York, 1977), pp. 218-24; and Lynne Brakeman and Susan Gall, eds., Chronology of Women Worldwide (Detroit, 1997). Note that Belgium in 1919 granted the vote only to widows and mothers of war victims, Portugal in 1931 to women with a secondary education.
291. Hause, Women's Suffrage, pp. 71-73.
292. See note 8 above.
293. Geraldine Jonçich Clifford, ed., Lone Voyagers: Academic Women in Coeducational Universities, 1870-1937 (New York, 1989).
294. There is no mention of Orme in Lang, British Women, or in Ray Strachey, The Cause: A Short History of the Women's Movement in Great Britain (London, 1928). Strachey does mention Cornelia Sorabji, but not Bertha Cave, Gwyneth Bebb, or Ivy Williams.
295. Dudgeon, "Women and Higher Education," p. 161.
296. See references in note 20.
297. France, Chamber of Deputies, Débats parlementaires, 7th legislature, 30 June 1899, p. 1,758.
298. Hause, Women's Suffrage, pp. 84-85.
299. Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice, p. 337; Drachman, Sisters in Law, appendix 1. One could also note that in the "progressive" United States, women could not attend law school at Harvard University until 1950, at the University of Notre Dame until 1966.
300. Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice, p. 337; Drachman, Sisters in Law, appendix 1. One could also note that in the "progressive" United States, women could not attend law school at Harvard University until 1950, at the University of Notre Dame until 1966.
301. Alan A. Patterson, "The Legal Profession in Scotland: An Endangered Species or a Problem Case for Market Theory?" in Lawyers in Society, ed. Abel and Lewis, 1: 93.
302. Streiter, "Die Rechts-und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät," p. 181.