Myths about diversity: What managers need to know about changes inthe U.S. labor force

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 4, 1996, Pages 54-77

  Friedman, Judith J ^a   DiTomaso, Nancy ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0038971819     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41165854     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
2. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
3. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
4. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
5. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
6. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
7. Examples from American Demographics include: Marcia Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," American Demographics (August 1995), pp. 32-39; William P. O'Hare, William H. Frey, and Dan Post, "Asians in the Suburbs," American Demographics (May 1994), pp. 32-38; William P. O'Hare and William H. Frey, "Booming, Suburban, and Black," American Demographics (September 1992), pp. 30-38; and Berna Miller, "A Beginners Guide to Demographics," American Demographics (October 1995), pp. 54-64. The Population Reference Bureau also organizes demographic information about markets. Both sources present labor force projections as well. Examples include: Thomas G. Exter, "In and Out of Work," American Demographics (June 1992), pp. 63; Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "Labor-force Change Exaggerated: One-Third of New Workers Will Still Be White Men," Population Today (May 1993), pp. 6-7, 9. Eric Schonfeld mentions the "power of demographics" in "Betting on the Boomers," Fortune, December 25, 1995, pp. 78-87.
8. William B. Johnston and Arnold H. Packer, Workforce 2000: Work and Workers for the21st Century (Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute, 1987).
9. This quote comes from the January 31, 1994 issue, p. 54. Similarly, The New York Times reported that: "It [the Hudson Institute report] predicted that because of demographic changes, white men would make up just 12 to 15 percent of the people joining the work force between 1988 and 2000" [April 20, 1995, p. D4]. There are many more examples.
10. Workforce 2000 identifies six categories: native-born white males and females; native-born nonwhite males and females; and immigrant males and females. Because government statistics do not distinguish people by nativity, it is not clear how the authors created this classification system.
11. The "other" in "Asian and other" includes Pacific Islanders, American Indians, Eskimo, and Aleut. The categories "Asian" and "Hispanic" each include people with numerous national backgrounds. The U.S. Census Bureau first used the category "Hispanic" in 1980. Workforce 2000 apparently included U.S.-born Hispanics among native-born whites. See Lawrence Mishel and Ruy A. Teixeira, "The Myth of the Coming Labor Shortage: Jobs, Skills, and Income of America's Workforce 2000," Economic Policy Institute, Washington, D.C., 1991.
12. Information about the 1994 U.S. labor force and these labor force projections come from Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "The 2005 Labor Force: Growing, But Slowly," Monthly Labor Review (November 1995), pp. 29-44 and "Errata [in Table 11]" Monthly Labor Review (March 1996), p. 38. Fullerton developed three projections using different assumptions about labor force participation rates, immigration, and so forth. We present his "medium" projection.
13. Information about the 1994 U.S. labor force and these labor force projections come from Howard N. Fullerton, Jr., "The 2005 Labor Force: Growing, But Slowly," Monthly Labor Review (November 1995), pp. 29-44 and "Errata [in Table 11]" Monthly Labor Review (March 1996), p. 38. Fullerton developed three projections using different assumptions about labor force participation rates, immigration, and so forth. We present his "medium" projection.
14. Percentages for 1940 and 1950 come from the Census of Population. In 1940, the labor force included those age 14 and 15. Percentages for 1955 to 1994 come from the U.S. Census Bureau's Current Population Reports. Fullerton (1995), op. cit., provides the estimate for 2005.
15. The report is not entirely to blame. Numerous experts have tried to set the record straight. Examples include Fullerton (1993), op. cit.; "Labor Force Change Is Greatly Exaggerated," Wall Street Journal, September 22, 1989, p. B1; Phyllis Barnum, "Misconceptions About the Future U.S. Work Force: Implications for Strategic Planning," Human Resource Planning, 14/3 (Fall 1991): 209-219; and Nancy DiTomaso and Judith J. Friedman, "A Sociological Commentary on Workforce 2000," in David B. Bills, ed., The New Modern Times (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995), pp. 207-234.
16. The report is not entirely to blame. Numerous experts have tried to set the record straight. Examples include Fullerton (1993), op. cit.; "Labor Force Change Is Greatly Exaggerated," Wall Street Journal, September 22, 1989, p. B1; Phyllis Barnum, "Misconceptions About the Future U.S. Work Force: Implications for Strategic Planning," Human Resource Planning, 14/3 (Fall 1991): 209-219; and Nancy DiTomaso and Judith J. Friedman, "A Sociological Commentary on Workforce 2000," in David B. Bills, ed., The New Modern Times (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995), pp. 207-234.
17. The report is not entirely to blame. Numerous experts have tried to set the record straight. Examples include Fullerton (1993), op. cit.; "Labor Force Change Is Greatly Exaggerated," Wall Street Journal, September 22, 1989, p. B1; Phyllis Barnum, "Misconceptions About the Future U.S. Work Force: Implications for Strategic Planning," Human Resource Planning, 14/3 (Fall 1991): 209-219; and Nancy DiTomaso and Judith J. Friedman, "A Sociological Commentary on Workforce 2000," in David B. Bills, ed., The New Modern Times (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995), pp. 207-234.
18. The report is not entirely to blame. Numerous experts have tried to set the record straight. Examples include Fullerton (1993), op. cit.; "Labor Force Change Is Greatly Exaggerated," Wall Street Journal, September 22, 1989, p. B1; Phyllis Barnum, "Misconceptions About the Future U.S. Work Force: Implications for Strategic Planning," Human Resource Planning, 14/3 (Fall 1991): 209-219; and Nancy DiTomaso and Judith J. Friedman, "A Sociological Commentary on Workforce 2000," in David B. Bills, ed., The New Modern Times (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995), pp. 207-234.
19. In addition, a frequently cited table juxtaposes the composition of the total 1985 labor force with the composition of net changes projected for 1985-2000. The title refers to "new entrants." Workforce 2000 also invites misunderstanding by emphasizing "facts" and claiming that "demography is destiny" [p. 75], DiTomaso and Friedman, op. cit., provide a more complete analysis of this influential report and also a discussion of population projections.
20. In addition, a frequently cited table juxtaposes the composition of the total 1985 labor force with the composition of net changes projected for 1985-2000. The title refers to "new entrants." Workforce 2000 also invites misunderstanding by emphasizing "facts" and claiming that "demography is destiny" [p. 75], DiTomaso and Friedman, op. cit., provide a more complete analysis of this influential report and also a discussion of population projections.
21. The term "replace" is, of course, figurative.
22. Young non-Hispanic white (and African American) men now in the labor force come from the relatively small "baby bust" cohorts (which began with 1965). If U.S. fertility had remained higher, these two categories would have a larger number of entrants, but about the same number of leavers. The baby boom cohorts have not yet reached retirement age. The size of the baby boom cohorts relative to more recent cohorts means the median age of those in the U.S. labor force is increasing. See Fullerton, op. cit., and "The Baby Boom Hits 50," Wall Street Journal, October 31, 1995, p. B1. Even so, the U.S. labor force remains "younger" than the pre-baby-boom labor force.
23. An hypothetical example may clarify this. Suppose only 1000 "net additions" were added to the U.S. labor force (of 131 million) between 1994 and 2005, and suppose that none of the 1000 were non-Hispanic, white men. Every non-Hispanic, white male who enters the labor force "replaces" a non-Hispanic, white male who leaves (a number expected to be about 11 million). The increment of 1000 people makes virtually no difference in the overall distribution of a labor force of 131 million, and it makes virtually no difference to the relative representation of the 11 million non-Hispanic, white male new entrants. In this hypothetical example, non-Hispanic, white men would be the same proportion of the labor force in 2005 as in 1994, even though they were not included at all among net new entrants during this period.
24. Fullerton, op. cit., p. 37.
25. All population projections (including those in Fullerton) come from U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Population Projections of the U.S., by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1995 to 2050," Current Population Reports, Series P-25-1130 (November 1995, released February 1996). These population projections separate Asians and Pacific Islanders from American Indians, Eskimo, and Aleut.
26. Fullerton, op. cit., pp. 32 and 37. These projections begin with 1994, and they use the category "Asian and other," which combines Asians and Pacific Islanders with American Indians, Eskimo, and Aleut.
27. See pages 285-286 in William H. Frey, "The New Geography of Population Shifts," in Reynolds Farley, ed., State of the Union: America in the 1990s, Vol. 2, Social Trends (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 271-336.
28. Frey, op. cit.; also, pages 227-229 in Barry R. Chiswick and Teresa A. Sullivan, "The New Immigrants," in Reynolds Farley, ed., State of the Union: America in the 1990s, Vol. 2, Social Trends (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 211-270.
29. Frey, op. cit.; also, pages 227-229 in Barry R. Chiswick and Teresa A. Sullivan, "The New Immigrants," in Reynolds Farley, ed., State of the Union: America in the 1990s, Vol. 2, Social Trends (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 211-270.
30. Michael Fix and Jeffrey S. Passel review research on the fiscal impacts of immigration in Immigration and Immigrants: Setting the Record Straight (Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1994). When all levels of government are considered together, immigrants "generate significantly more in taxes paid than they cost in services received" [p. 57].
31. A recent New York Times article illustrates some of these points (Doreen Carvajal, "For Immigrant Maids, Not a Job but Servitude," February 25, 1996, pp. 1, 37). She describes domestic workers who are isolated in suburban homes. Immigrant organizations in New York City and on Long Island are finding ways to reach them.
32. Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 3.
33. Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 10.
34. See George Borjas, Friends or Strangers (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1990), p. 37.
35. See Edward Funkhouser and Stephen J. Trejo, "The Labor Market Skills of Recent Male Immigrants: Evidence from the Current Population Survey," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48 (July 1995): 792-811.
36. Soothing the Establishment: The Impact of Foreign-Born Scientists and Engineers on America (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc., 1995).
37. Michael G. Finn and Leigh Ann Pennington, "Foreign Nationals Who Receive Science or Engineering Ph.D.s from U.S. Universities: Stay Rates and Characteristics of Stayers," unpublished paper, October 1994.
38. Fix and Passel, op. cit., pp. 32-34; Jeffrey S. Passel and Michael Fix, "Myths about Immigrants," Foreign Policy (Summer 1994), pp. 151-160; Chiswick and Sullivan, op. cit.
39. Fix and Passel, op. cit., pp. 32-34; Jeffrey S. Passel and Michael Fix, "Myths about Immigrants," Foreign Policy (Summer 1994), pp. 151-160; Chiswick and Sullivan, op. cit.
40. Fix and Passel, op. cit., pp. 32-34; Jeffrey S. Passel and Michael Fix, "Myths about Immigrants," Foreign Policy (Summer 1994), pp. 151-160; Chiswick and Sullivan, op. cit.
41. Borjas, op. cit., pp. 221-223; Carvajal, op. cit., pp. 234-236;
42. Borjas, op. cit., pp. 221-223; Carvajal, op. cit., pp. 234-236;
43. Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmehr, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1996), Chapter 15.
44. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; John R. Logan, Richard D. Alba, and Thomas L. McNulty, "Ethnic Economies in Metropolitan Regions: Miami and Beyond," Social Forces, 72 (March 1994): 691-724; Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1987); "New York: The Empire City," in Robert J. S. Ross and Kent C. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990), pp. 156-169.
45. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; John R. Logan, Richard D. Alba, and Thomas L. McNulty, "Ethnic Economies in Metropolitan Regions: Miami and Beyond," Social Forces, 72 (March 1994): 691-724; Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1987); "New York: The Empire City," in Robert J. S. Ross and Kent C. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990), pp. 156-169.
46. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; John R. Logan, Richard D. Alba, and Thomas L. McNulty, "Ethnic Economies in Metropolitan Regions: Miami and Beyond," Social Forces, 72 (March 1994): 691-724; Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1987); "New York: The Empire City," in Robert J. S. Ross and Kent C. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990), pp. 156-169.
47. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; John R. Logan, Richard D. Alba, and Thomas L. McNulty, "Ethnic Economies in Metropolitan Regions: Miami and Beyond," Social Forces, 72 (March 1994): 691-724; Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York, NY: Hill and Wang, 1987); "New York: The Empire City," in Robert J. S. Ross and Kent C. Trachte, Global Capitalism: The New Leviathan (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1990), pp. 156-169.
48. Fix and Passel, op. cit., include an extensive review of the research on immigration-related labor market effects. Appendix B provides a concise summary of each study. Borjas, op. cit., reviews the economic literature.
49. Fix and Passel, op. cit., include an extensive review of the research on immigration-related labor market effects. Appendix B provides a concise summary of each study. Borjas, op. cit., reviews the economic literature.
50. Fix and Passel, op. cit., pp. 52-54.
51. See Frey, op. cit., pp. 285-289; Randall K. Filer, "The Effects of Immigrant Arrivals on Migratory Patterns of Native Workers," in George J. Borjas and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration and the Work Force: Economic Consequences for the U.S. and Source Areas (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 245-269.
52. See Frey, op. cit., pp. 285-289; Randall K. Filer, "The Effects of Immigrant Arrivals on Migratory Patterns of Native Workers," in George J. Borjas and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration and the Work Force: Economic Consequences for the U.S. and Source Areas (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 245-269.
53. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
54. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
55. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
56. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
57. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
58. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
59. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
60. Maria E. Enchautegui, "The Effects of Immigration on the Wages and Employment of African American Males," Working Paper, Program for Research on Immigration Policy, Urban Institute, PRIP-UI-25, May 1993; Fix and Passel, op. cit., p. 50; George J. Borjas, "Immigrants, Minorities, and Labor Market Competition," Industrial and Labor Relations, 40 (1987): 382-392; Gregory DeFreitas, "Hispanic Immigration and Labor Market Segmentation," Industrial Relations, 27 (1988): 195-214; Joseph G. Altonji and David Card, "The Effects of Immigration on the Labor Market Outcomes of Less-skilled Natives," in John M. Abowd and Richard B. Freeman, eds., Immigration, Trade, and the Labor Market (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 201-234; Frank D. Bean, Mark A. Fossett, and Kyung Tae Park, "Labor Market Dynamics and the Effects of Immigration on African Americans," in Gerald Jaynes, ed., African Americans, Immigration, and Race Relations (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1993); Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.; and Filer, op. cit.
61. See page 222 of John D. Kasarda, "Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs," in Reynolds Farley, ed., State of the Union: America in the 1990s, V. I: Economic Trends (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), pp. 215-267. The percent is for central counties of metropolitan areas with populations of 750,000 or more.
62. Kasarda, op. cit., pp. 256-258. Also, see John Bound and Harry J. Holzer, "Industrial Shifts, Skills Levels, and the Labor Market for White and Black Males," The Review of Economics and Statistics, 75 (August 1993): 387-396.
63. Kasarda, op. cit., pp. 256-258. Also, see John Bound and Harry J. Holzer, "Industrial Shifts, Skills Levels, and the Labor Market for White and Black Males," The Review of Economics and Statistics, 75 (August 1993): 387-396.
64. Frey, op. cit., pp. 287-289, 314-325.
65. Filer, op. cit.
66. Kathryn M. Neckerman and Joleen Kirschenman, "Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers," Social Problems, 38 (November 1991 ): 433-447; Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "'We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers," in Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1991) pp. 203-232; Kasarda, op. cit., p. 265; Joleen Kirschenman, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly, "Employer Screening Methods and Racial Exclusion," Russell Sage Foundation Working Paper #77, October 1995; Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
67. Kathryn M. Neckerman and Joleen Kirschenman, "Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers," Social Problems, 38 (November 1991 ): 433-447; Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "'We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers," in Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1991) pp. 203-232; Kasarda, op. cit., p. 265; Joleen Kirschenman, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly, "Employer Screening Methods and Racial Exclusion," Russell Sage Foundation Working Paper #77, October 1995; Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
68. Kathryn M. Neckerman and Joleen Kirschenman, "Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers," Social Problems, 38 (November 1991 ): 433-447; Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "'We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers," in Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1991) pp. 203-232; Kasarda, op. cit., p. 265; Joleen Kirschenman, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly, "Employer Screening Methods and Racial Exclusion," Russell Sage Foundation Working Paper #77, October 1995; Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
69. Kathryn M. Neckerman and Joleen Kirschenman, "Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers," Social Problems, 38 (November 1991 ): 433-447; Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "'We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers," in Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1991) pp. 203-232; Kasarda, op. cit., p. 265; Joleen Kirschenman, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly, "Employer Screening Methods and Racial Exclusion," Russell Sage Foundation Working Paper #77, October 1995; Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
70. Kathryn M. Neckerman and Joleen Kirschenman, "Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers," Social Problems, 38 (November 1991 ): 433-447; Joleen Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "'We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . .': The Meaning of Race for Employers," in Christopher Jencks and Paul E. Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1991) pp. 203-232; Kasarda, op. cit., p. 265; Joleen Kirschenman, Philip Moss, and Chris Tilly, "Employer Screening Methods and Racial Exclusion," Russell Sage Foundation Working Paper #77, October 1995; Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
71. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit. Also, Gary P. Green, Leann M. Tigges, and Irene Browne, "Social Resources, Job Search, and Poverty in Atlanta," Research in Community Sociology, 5 (Greewich, CT: JAI Press, Inc., 1995), pp. 161-182.
72. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit. Also, Gary P. Green, Leann M. Tigges, and Irene Browne, "Social Resources, Job Search, and Poverty in Atlanta," Research in Community Sociology, 5 (Greewich, CT: JAI Press, Inc., 1995), pp. 161-182.
73. Kasarda, op. cit., p. 258; Jonathan Kaufman, "Immigrants' Businesses Often Refuse to Hire African Americans in Inner City," The Wall Street Journal, June 6, 1995, p. A1.
74. Kasarda, op. cit., p. 258; Jonathan Kaufman, "Immigrants' Businesses Often Refuse to Hire African Americans in Inner City," The Wall Street Journal, June 6, 1995, p. A1.
75. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Earnings (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1995), Table 11, "Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin," p. 175; Bureau of the Census, "The Social and Economic Status of the Black Population in the United States, 1974," Current Population Reports, Special Studies Series P-23, No. 54 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), Table 50.
76. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Earnings (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1995), Table 11, "Employed Persons by Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin," p. 175; Bureau of the Census, "The Social and Economic Status of the Black Population in the United States, 1974," Current Population Reports, Special Studies Series P-23, No. 54 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), Table 50.
77. Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, op. cit.
78. Natalie J. Sokoloff, African American Women and White Women in the Professions: Occupational Segregation by Race and Gender, 1960-1980 (New York, NY: Routledge, 1992). Case studies of public relations and of bank managers show similar patterns for all women. See Barbara Reskin and Pat Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1990).
79. Natalie J. Sokoloff, African American Women and White Women in the Professions: Occupational Segregation by Race and Gender, 1960-1980 (New York, NY: Routledge, 1992). Case studies of public relations and of bank managers show similar patterns for all women. See Barbara Reskin and Pat Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1990).
80. Nancy DiTomaso and Steven A. Smith, "Race and Ethnic Minorities and White Women in Management: Changes and Challenges," in Joyce Tang and Earl Smith, eds., Women and Minorities in American Professions (Albany, NY: SUNY Press); U.S. Department of Labor, op. cit.
81. Nancy DiTomaso and Steven A. Smith, "Race and Ethnic Minorities and White Women in Management: Changes and Challenges," in Joyce Tang and Earl Smith, eds., Women and Minorities in American Professions (Albany, NY: SUNY Press); U.S. Department of Labor, op. cit.
82. Sharon M. Collins, "The Making of the African American Middle Class," Social Problems, 30/4 (1983): 369-382; Sharon M. Collins, "The Marginalization of African Americans Executives," Social Problems, 36 (1989): 317-331; Sharon M. Collins, "Blacks on the Bubble: the Vulnerability of Black Executives in White Corporations," The Sociological Quarterly, 34 (1993): 429-447; Stella M. Nkomo and Taylor Cox, Jr., "Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Black Managers in Private Sector Organizations," The Review of Black Political Economy, 18 (Winter 1990): 39-58.
83. Sharon M. Collins, "The Making of the African American Middle Class," Social Problems, 30/4 (1983): 369-382; Sharon M. Collins, "The Marginalization of African Americans Executives," Social Problems, 36 (1989): 317-331; Sharon M. Collins, "Blacks on the Bubble: the Vulnerability of Black Executives in White Corporations," The Sociological Quarterly, 34 (1993): 429-447; Stella M. Nkomo and Taylor Cox, Jr., "Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Black Managers in Private Sector Organizations," The Review of Black Political Economy, 18 (Winter 1990): 39-58.
84. Sharon M. Collins, "The Making of the African American Middle Class," Social Problems, 30/4 (1983): 369-382; Sharon M. Collins, "The Marginalization of African Americans Executives," Social Problems, 36 (1989): 317-331; Sharon M. Collins, "Blacks on the Bubble: the Vulnerability of Black Executives in White Corporations," The Sociological Quarterly, 34 (1993): 429-447; Stella M. Nkomo and Taylor Cox, Jr., "Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Black Managers in Private Sector Organizations," The Review of Black Political Economy, 18 (Winter 1990): 39-58.
85. Sharon M. Collins, "The Making of the African American Middle Class," Social Problems, 30/4 (1983): 369-382; Sharon M. Collins, "The Marginalization of African Americans Executives," Social Problems, 36 (1989): 317-331; Sharon M. Collins, "Blacks on the Bubble: the Vulnerability of Black Executives in White Corporations," The Sociological Quarterly, 34 (1993): 429-447; Stella M. Nkomo and Taylor Cox, Jr., "Factors Affecting the Upward Mobility of Black Managers in Private Sector Organizations," The Review of Black Political Economy, 18 (Winter 1990): 39-58.
86. Franklin D. Wilson, Marta Tienda, and Lawrence Wu, "Race and Unemployment: Labor Market Experiences of Black and White Men, 1968-1988," Work and Occupations, 22 (August 1995): 245-270.
87. Reynolds Farley, "Black, Hispanics, and White Ethnic Groups: Are Blacks Uniquely Disadvantaged?" in Adalberto Aguirre, Jr., and David V. Baker, eds., Sources: Notable Selections in Race and Ethnicity (Guilford, CT: The Dushkin Publishing Group, 1995), pp. 209-217. Hispanics and Native Americans also have relatively low levels of education and low rates of return for each additional year of school. Asians receive lower rates of return for each additional year of education, but their high levels of education bring up average incomes. For Asians, see also Harriet Orcutt Duleep and Seth Sanders, "Discrimination at the Top: AmericanBorn Asian and White Men," Industrial Relations, 31 (Fall 1992): 416-432.
88. Reynolds Farley, "Black, Hispanics, and White Ethnic Groups: Are Blacks Uniquely Disadvantaged?" in Adalberto Aguirre, Jr., and David V. Baker, eds., Sources: Notable Selections in Race and Ethnicity (Guilford, CT: The Dushkin Publishing Group, 1995), pp. 209-217. Hispanics and Native Americans also have relatively low levels of education and low rates of return for each additional year of school. Asians receive lower rates of return for each additional year of education, but their high levels of education bring up average incomes. For Asians, see also Harriet Orcutt Duleep and Seth Sanders, "Discrimination at the Top: AmericanBorn Asian and White Men," Industrial Relations, 31 (Fall 1992): 416-432.
89. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: African American and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1992); Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race (London: Verso, 1994); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
90. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: African American and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1992); Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race (London: Verso, 1994); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
91. Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: African American and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal (New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1992); Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race (London: Verso, 1994); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 1991).
92. Farley, op. cit.
93. Hacker, op. cit., p. 103. Until recently, official statistics counted Hispanics as white.
94. This change involved requests for separate information, rather than a change in perception.
95. Lawrence Mishel and Jared Bernstein, The State of Working America, 1994-95 (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1994), p. 203. Maury B. Gittleman and David R. Howell document declines in the quality of low-skill jobs in "Changes in the Structure and Quality of Jobs in the U.S.: Effects by Race and Gender, 1973-1990," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48 (April 1995): 420-440.
96. Lawrence Mishel and Jared Bernstein, The State of Working America, 1994-95 (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 1994), p. 203. Maury B. Gittleman and David R. Howell document declines in the quality of low-skill jobs in "Changes in the Structure and Quality of Jobs in the U.S.: Effects by Race and Gender, 1973-1990," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48 (April 1995): 420-440.
97. See discussion in Jeremy Rifkin, The End of Work (New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1995).