Making Southern Belles in progressive era Florida: Gender in the formal and hidden curriculum of the Florida Female College

Frontiers

Volumn 16, Issue 2-3, 1996, Pages 218-246

  Birnbaum, Shira ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038971600     PISSN: 01609009     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3346809     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Gail P. Kelly and Ann S. Nihlen, "Schooling and the Reproduction of Patriarchy," in Culture and Economic Reproduction in Education, ed. Michael Apple (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982).
2. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon, 1972); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1982); David B. Tyack, The One Best System (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
3. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon, 1972); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1982); David B. Tyack, The One Best System (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
4. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon, 1972); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1982); David B. Tyack, The One Best System (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
5. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon, 1972); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1982); David B. Tyack, The One Best System (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
6. Michael B. Katz, Reconstructing American Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon, 1972); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Managers of Virtue (New York: Basic Books, 1982); David B. Tyack, The One Best System (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974); Raymond E. Callahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
7. For example, Jane Bernard Powers, The "Girl Question" in Education (Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, 1992); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Learning Together (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
8. For example, Jane Bernard Powers, The "Girl Question" in Education (Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, 1992); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Learning Together (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
9. For example, Jane Bernard Powers, The "Girl Question" in Education (Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, 1992); David Tyack and Elisabeth Hansot, Learning Together (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
10. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
11. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
12. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
13. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
14. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
15. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
16. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
17. For discussions of the rise of women's colleges, the struggle for coeducation and the nationwide Progressive Era backlash against women's access to schooling, see Elisabeth Hansot and David Tyack, "Gender in American Public Schools: Thinking Institutionally," Signs 13:4 (Summer 1988): 741-760; Sally Schwager, "Educating Women in America," Signs 12:2 (Winter 1987): 333-382; John Rury, "Vocationalism for Home and Work: Women's Education in the United States, 1889-1930," History of Education Quarterly 24:1 (Spring 1984): 21-44; Barbara Miller Solomon, In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Women and Higher Education in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); Geraldine Joncich Clifford, "Shaking Dangerous Questions From the Crease: Gender and American Higher Education," Feminist Issues 3:2 (1983): 3-62; Rosalind Rosenberg, Beyond Separate Spheres: Intellectual Roots of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Patricia Aljberg Graham, "Expansion and Exclusion: A History of Women in American Higher Education," Signs 3:4 (Summer 1978): 759-773; Sheila M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, 1978).
18. Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Deborah A. Hall, "Coming of Age in the Progressive Era: The Role of Southern Women's Higher Education" (Ed.D. Diss., University of Kentucky, 1991); Amy Thompson McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone of Robust Manliness: The Battle Against Coeducation at Southern Colleges and Universities, 1890-1940," NWSA Journal 2:2 (Spring 1990): 199-216; Joseph F. Kett, "Women and the Progressive Impulse in Southern Education," in The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family and Education, ed. Walter Fraser, Jr., R. Frank Saunders, Jr., and Jon L. Wakelyn (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 166-180.
19. Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Deborah A. Hall, "Coming of Age in the Progressive Era: The Role of Southern Women's Higher Education" (Ed.D. Diss., University of Kentucky, 1991); Amy Thompson McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone of Robust Manliness: The Battle Against Coeducation at Southern Colleges and Universities, 1890-1940," NWSA Journal 2:2 (Spring 1990): 199-216; Joseph F. Kett, "Women and the Progressive Impulse in Southern Education," in The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family and Education, ed. Walter Fraser, Jr., R. Frank Saunders, Jr., and Jon L. Wakelyn (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 166-180.
20. Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Deborah A. Hall, "Coming of Age in the Progressive Era: The Role of Southern Women's Higher Education" (Ed.D. Diss., University of Kentucky, 1991); Amy Thompson McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone of Robust Manliness: The Battle Against Coeducation at Southern Colleges and Universities, 1890-1940," NWSA Journal 2:2 (Spring 1990): 199-216; Joseph F. Kett, "Women and the Progressive Impulse in Southern Education," in The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family and Education, ed. Walter Fraser, Jr., R. Frank Saunders, Jr., and Jon L. Wakelyn (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 166-180.
21. Lynn D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Deborah A. Hall, "Coming of Age in the Progressive Era: The Role of Southern Women's Higher Education" (Ed.D. Diss., University of Kentucky, 1991); Amy Thompson McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone of Robust Manliness: The Battle Against Coeducation at Southern Colleges and Universities, 1890-1940," NWSA Journal 2:2 (Spring 1990): 199-216; Joseph F. Kett, "Women and the Progressive Impulse in Southern Education," in The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family and Education, ed. Walter Fraser, Jr., R. Frank Saunders, Jr., and Jon L. Wakelyn (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1985), 166-180.
22. Christie Anne Farnham, The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South (New York: New York University Press, 1994); Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Elizabeth L. Ihle, Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies and Documents (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992); Elizabeth L. Ihle, "Black Women's Education in the South: The Dual Burden of Sex and Race," in Changing Education: Women as Radicals and Conservators, ed. Joyce Antler and Sari Knopp Biklen (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), 69-80; Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868-1915 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
23. Christie Anne Farnham, The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South (New York: New York University Press, 1994); Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Elizabeth L. Ihle, Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies and Documents (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992); Elizabeth L. Ihle, "Black Women's Education in the South: The Dual Burden of Sex and Race," in Changing Education: Women as Radicals and Conservators, ed. Joyce Antler and Sari Knopp Biklen (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), 69-80; Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868-1915 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
24. Christie Anne Farnham, The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South (New York: New York University Press, 1994); Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Elizabeth L. Ihle, Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies and Documents (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992); Elizabeth L. Ihle, "Black Women's Education in the South: The Dual Burden of Sex and Race," in Changing Education: Women as Radicals and Conservators, ed. Joyce Antler and Sari Knopp Biklen (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), 69-80; Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868-1915 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
25. Christie Anne Farnham, The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South (New York: New York University Press, 1994); Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Elizabeth L. Ihle, Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies and Documents (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992); Elizabeth L. Ihle, "Black Women's Education in the South: The Dual Burden of Sex and Race," in Changing Education: Women as Radicals and Conservators, ed. Joyce Antler and Sari Knopp Biklen (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), 69-80; Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868-1915 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
26. Christie Anne Farnham, The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South (New York: New York University Press, 1994); Steven M. Stowe, Intimacy and Power in the Old South: Ritual in the Lives of the Planters (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987); Elizabeth L. Ihle, Black Women in Higher Education: An Anthology of Essays, Studies and Documents (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992); Elizabeth L. Ihle, "Black Women's Education in the South: The Dual Burden of Sex and Race," in Changing Education: Women as Radicals and Conservators, ed. Joyce Antler and Sari Knopp Biklen (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1990), 69-80; Donald Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery: Black Industrial Education, 1868-1915 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978).
27. Kathryn A. Hanna, Florida: Land of Change (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1948); Charles W. Tebeau, A History of Florida (Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1971).
28. Kathryn A. Hanna, Florida: Land of Change (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1948); Charles W. Tebeau, A History of Florida (Coral Gables, Fla.: University of Miami Press, 1971).
29. Kathryn T. Abbey, "Florida vs. the Principles of Populism, 1896-1911," Journal of Southern History 4 (Feb.-Nov. 1938): 462-475; Arnold Marc Pavlovsky, "We Busted Because We Failed: Florida Politics, 1880-1908" (Ph.D. Diss., Princeton University, 1974).
30. Kathryn T. Abbey, "Florida vs. the Principles of Populism, 1896-1911," Journal of Southern History 4 (Feb.-Nov. 1938): 462-475; Arnold Marc Pavlovsky, "We Busted Because We Failed: Florida Politics, 1880-1908" (Ph.D. Diss., Princeton University, 1974).
31. Nancy A. Hewitt, "Politicizing Domesticity: Anglo, Black and Latin Women in Tampa's Progressive Movement," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 24-41; Jerry Woods Weeks, "Florida Gold: The Emergence of the Florida Citrus Industry, 1866-1895" (Ph.D. Diss., University of North Carolina, 1977); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, "Immigrant Women in Tampa: The Italian Experience, 1890-1930," Florida Historical Quarterly 61:3 (Jan. 1983): 296-312; Gary R. Mormino, "Tampa and the New Urban South: The Weight Strike of 1899," Florida Historical Quarterly 60:3 (Jan. 1982): 337-356.
32. Nancy A. Hewitt, "Politicizing Domesticity: Anglo, Black and Latin Women in Tampa's Progressive Movement," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 24-41; Jerry Woods Weeks, "Florida Gold: The Emergence of the Florida Citrus Industry, 1866-1895" (Ph.D. Diss., University of North Carolina, 1977); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, "Immigrant Women in Tampa: The Italian Experience, 1890-1930," Florida Historical Quarterly 61:3 (Jan. 1983): 296-312; Gary R. Mormino, "Tampa and the New Urban South: The Weight Strike of 1899," Florida Historical Quarterly 60:3 (Jan. 1982): 337-356.
33. Nancy A. Hewitt, "Politicizing Domesticity: Anglo, Black and Latin Women in Tampa's Progressive Movement," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 24-41; Jerry Woods Weeks, "Florida Gold: The Emergence of the Florida Citrus Industry, 1866-1895" (Ph.D. Diss., University of North Carolina, 1977); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, "Immigrant Women in Tampa: The Italian Experience, 1890-1930," Florida Historical Quarterly 61:3 (Jan. 1983): 296-312; Gary R. Mormino, "Tampa and the New Urban South: The Weight Strike of 1899," Florida Historical Quarterly 60:3 (Jan. 1982): 337-356.
34. Nancy A. Hewitt, "Politicizing Domesticity: Anglo, Black and Latin Women in Tampa's Progressive Movement," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 24-41; Jerry Woods Weeks, "Florida Gold: The Emergence of the Florida Citrus Industry, 1866-1895" (Ph.D. Diss., University of North Carolina, 1977); Gary R. Mormino and George E. Pozzetta, "Immigrant Women in Tampa: The Italian Experience, 1890-1930," Florida Historical Quarterly 61:3 (Jan. 1983): 296-312; Gary R. Mormino, "Tampa and the New Urban South: The Weight Strike of 1899," Florida Historical Quarterly 60:3 (Jan. 1982): 337-356.
35. See Dewey W. Grantham, Southern Progressivism (Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Tennessee Press, 1983).
36. Grantham, Southern Progressivism.
37. Wali Rashash Kharif, "The Refinement of Racial Segregation in Florida after the Civil War (Ph.D. Diss., Florida State University, 1983).
38. Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery, 87; see also Grantham, Southern Progressivism.
39. Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery, 87; see also Grantham, Southern Progressivism.
40. Arthur O. White, "Booker T. Washington's Florida Incident, 1903-1904," Florida Historical Quarterly 51:3 (Jan. 1973): 228.
41. Arthur O. White, "State Leadership and Black Education in Florida, 1876-1976," Phylon 42:2 (June 1981), 168-179.
42. Like many white Southerners, Sheats claimed that an academic education would make blacks insubordinate by "filling them with notions."
43. Joe M. Richardson, "'The Nest of Vile Fanatics': William N. Sheats and the Orange Park School," Florida Historical Quarterly 64:4 (Apr. 1986): 400.
44. Grantham, Southern Progressivism, 204.
45. Linda D. Vance, May Mann Jennings: Florida's Genteel Activist (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1985).
46. A. Elizabeth Taylor, "The Woman Suffrage Movement in Florida," Florida Historical Quarterly 36:1 (July 1957), 42.
47. For more on this trend, see Anne Firor Scott, "Most Invisible of All: Black Women's Voluntary Associations," The Journal of Southern History 56:1 (Feb. 1990); Kathleen C. Berkeley, "'Colored Girls Also Contributed': Black Women's Activities from Benevolence to Social Welfare, 1866-1896," in The Web of Southern Social Relations, 181-203.
48. For more on this trend, see Anne Firor Scott, "Most Invisible of All: Black Women's Voluntary Associations," The Journal of Southern History 56:1 (Feb. 1990); Kathleen C. Berkeley, "'Colored Girls Also Contributed': Black Women's Activities from Benevolence to Social Welfare, 1866-1896," in The Web of Southern Social Relations, 181-203.
49. Leedell Neyland, Twelve Black Floridians (Tallahassee: Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University Foundation, 1970).
50. Catherine Clinton, The Other Civil War: American Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984); Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989).
51. Catherine Clinton, The Other Civil War: American Women in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Hill and Wang, 1984); Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989).
52. Anne Firor Scott, The Southern Lady, From Pedestal to Politics, 1830-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 111.
53. Kharif, "Refinement of Racial Segregation."
54. Dan T. Carter and Amy Friedlander, "Introduction" in Southern Women in the Recent Educational Movement in the South, A. D. Mayo (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), xi-xxiii.
55. John Carl Ruoff, "Southern Womanhood, 1865-1920: An Intellectual and Cultural Study" (Ph.D. Diss, University of Illinois, 1976); Anne Firor Scott, The Southern Lady.
56. John Carl Ruoff, "Southern Womanhood, 1865-1920: An Intellectual and Cultural Study" (Ph.D. Diss, University of Illinois, 1976); Anne Firor Scott, The Southern Lady.
57. Scott, The Southern Lady.
58. Tallahassee Weekly True Democrat, 21 July 1905.
59. Quoted in White, "Booker T. Washington's Florida Incident," 23.
60. Quoted in Mary Carolyn Ellis and Joanne V. Hawks, "Creating a Different Pattern: Florida's Women Legislators, 1928-1986," Florida Historical Quarterly 66:1 (July 1987): 68.
61. Patricia A. Stringer and Irene Thompson, Stepping off the Pedestal (New York: Modern Language Association, 1982).
62. Samuel Proctor, "The National Farmers Alliance Convention of 1890 and its 'Ocala Demands,'" Florida Historical Quarterly 28:3 (Jan. 1950): 161-181.
63. Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Period Ending June 30, 1902, 15.
64. Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Period Ending June 30, 1902, 4-24.
65. Arthur D. Pollock, "The Evolution of the Organizational Structure of Local Public Education in Florida, 1845-1947" (Ph.D. Diss., Florida State University, 1968).
66. Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1906, 9.
67. Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1902, 20-24.
68. Kharif, "The Refinement of Racial Segregation."
69. Despite the Supreme Court's 1954 ruling against segregated schools, Florida public schools weren't formally desegregated until the 1970s.
70. . See, for example, A. D. Mayo, Southern Women in the Recent Educational Movement in the South; Ronald K. Goodenow and Arthur O. White, Education and the Rise of the New South (Boston: G. K. Hall and Co., 1981); Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery.
71. . See, for example, A. D. Mayo, Southern Women in the Recent Educational Movement in the South; Ronald K. Goodenow and Arthur O. White, Education and the Rise of the New South (Boston: G. K. Hall and Co., 1981); Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery.
72. . See, for example, A. D. Mayo, Southern Women in the Recent Educational Movement in the South; Ronald K. Goodenow and Arthur O. White, Education and the Rise of the New South (Boston: G. K. Hall and Co., 1981); Spivey, Schooling for the New Slavery.
73. Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1902, 18. In 1913, Florida lawmakers closed loopholes in the 1895 law banning coeducation of the races by making it a crime for any white person to teach black students and, conversely, for any black teacher to teach white students. See Kharif, "The Refinement of Racial Segregation."
74. Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1902, 18. In 1913, Florida lawmakers closed loopholes in the 1895 law banning coeducation of the races by making it a crime for any white person to teach black students and, conversely, for any black teacher to teach white students. See Kharif, "The Refinement of Racial Segregation."
75. See, for example, Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, issues between 1894 and 1904; Nita Katharine Pyburn, The History of the Development of a Single System of Education in Florida, 1822-1903 (Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, 1954).
76. See, for example, Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, issues between 1894 and 1904; Nita Katharine Pyburn, The History of the Development of a Single System of Education in Florida, 1822-1903 (Tallahassee, Fla.: Florida State University, 1954).
77. Pollock, "Evolution of the Organizational Structure."
78. Except for the Colored Normal and Industrial School and a small program with very few students in the School for the Blind, Florida's institutions of higher learning for blacks were run by private, philanthropic, or religious organizations.
79. Bi-ennial Report of the State High School Inspector of the State of Florida for the Year Ending 1896. This is not to say that equal numbers meant equal education, however.
80. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 1, 21-22.
81. William G. Dodd, "Florida State College for Women - Notes on the Formative Years," unpublished report, 1958, Robert Manning Strozier Library, Special Collections, Florida State University.
82. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 1, 371.
83. Letter, H. H. Buckman to the Editors of Outlook, 30 June 1905, Napoleon B. Broward Papers 20267, Box 8, Folder 9, Florida State Archives, Tallahassee, Florida [henceforth NBBP].
84. Letter, H. H. Buckman to the Editors of Outlook, 30 June 1905, Napoleon B. Broward Papers 20267, Box 8, Folder 9, Florida State Archives, Tallahassee, Florida [henceforth NBBP].
85. Letter, H. H. Buckman to N. B. Broward, June 30, 1905, NBBP 20267, Box 8, Folder 9.
86. Letter, H. H. Buckman to N. B. Broward, June 30, 1905, NBBP 20267, Box 8, Folder 9.
87. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 2, 1309; Tallahassee Weekly True Democrat, 9 June 1905.
88. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 2, 1309; Tallahassee Weekly True Democrat, 9 June 1905.
89. Florida Senate Journal 1905, 1327-1337.
90. When some former trustees and supporters of the Florida Agricultural College sued the Board of Control that year, the state Supreme Court sided with Board members and upheld the Buckman Law. See State ex rel. Moodie at al. v. Bryan et al., The Southern Reporter 39 (Dec. 19, 1905), 929.
91. Jasper News, 1 December 1905.
92. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 2, 1266-1267; Tallahassee Weekly True Democrat, 19 May 1905.
93. Florida House of Representatives Journal 1905, Part 2, 1266-1267; Tallahassee Weekly True Democrat, 19 May 1905.
94. Florida Senate Journal 1905, 1327.
95. Laws of Florida, Chapter 5384.
96. Florida Board of Education, Minutes, July 5, 1905, 594-600.
97. Letter, A. A. Murphree to C. G. Puleston, July 13, 1905, Murphree Letterpress Books, Box 2, Book 4, p. 270, Robert Manning Strozier Library, Special Collections, Florida State University [henceforth MLB].
98. Laws of Florida 1905, Chapter 5384, No. 13, Sections 21, 22.
99. Florida Board of Education, Minutes, July 25, 1905, 613.
100. Even as state governments and philanthropic organizations were willing to expend money to maintain separate institutions for white male and female students, Elizabeth Ihle has argued that they were unwilling to do so in the case of black students. Almost all higher educational institutions for black students, consequently, were coeducational.
101. Report of the Board of Control of the State Educational Institutions ofFlorida for the Period Beginning January 1, 1909, and Ending December 31, 1910; Florida Board of Control, Report of the Chairman of the Board for 1948.
102. Florida Board of Control, Minutes, Evening Session, July 7, 1905, 11-12.
103. Dodd, "Florida State College." The Normal School at the all-male University in Gainesville, by contrast, was given a "Practice High School" and a course in "State High School Inspection." This contrast reinforced and reflected the emerging national trend of having female teachers for the lower grades, supervised by male school administrators with backgrounds as teachers for the higher grades. Report of the Board of Control for the Biennium Ending June 30, 1914, 27.
104. Bi-ennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1906, 236.
105. Vance, May Mann Jennings.
106. Powers, "The Girl Question."
107. Biennial Report of the Florida Board of Control, Jan. 5, 1916, 98.
108. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
109. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
110. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
111. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
112. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
113. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
114. Patricia Smith Butcher, Education for Equality: Women's Rights Periodicals and Women's Higher Education, 1849-1920 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989); Kerreen Reiger, "All But the Kitchen Sink: On the Significance of Domestic Science and the Silence of Social Theory," Theory and Society 16:4 (July 1987): 497-526; Laura Shapiro, Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986); Roberta Frankfort, Collegiate Women: Domesticity and Career in Turn-of-the Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1977); Adele Simmons, "Education and Ideology in Nineteenth-Century America: The Response of Educational Institutions to the Changing Role of Women," in Liberating Women's History: Theoretical and Critical Essays, ed. Berenice Carroll (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1976), 115-126; Jill Conway, "Perspectives on the History of Women's Education in the United States," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 1-12; Roberta Wein, "Women's Colleges and Domesticity, 1875-1918," History of Education Quarterly 14:1 (Spring 1974): 31-47.
115. Ivy F. Harner, "Household Economics in the Institutes of the South," Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on Home Economics, 1902, Lake Placid, New York, 1902, 11-15.
116. Bulletin of the State College for Women 2:2, 10.
117. Agnes Ellen Harris, "The Demand for Domestic Science Among the Young Womanhood of the South," Journal of Proceedings and Addresses of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Southern Educational Association Held Jointly with The Southern Association of College Women, 1906, 183.
118. Leedell W. Neyland, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University: A Centennial History (Tallahassee: Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University Foundations, 1987).
119. Samuel H. Shannon, "Land-Grant College Legislation and Black Tennesseans: A Case Study in the Politics of Education," History of Education Quarterly 22:2 (Summer 1982): 139-157.
120. Leedell W. Neyland and John W. Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1963), 46.
121. Neyland and Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University.
122. Neyland and Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, 47.
123. Neyland and Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, 47.
124. Bi-ennial Report of the State High School Inspector of the State of Florida for the Year Ending June 30, 1912, 22.
125. Florida Board of Control, Minutes, Feb. 5, 1906, 117.
126. Bi-ennial report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1906, 237.
127. "Announcement," Journal of Home Economics 1:3 (June 1909): 298.
128. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone";
129. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; McCandless, "Maintaining the Spirit and Tone";
130. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Alma Mater (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984).
131. Florida Board of Control Biennial Reports of Jan. 5, 1911, 97.
132. Bulletin of the State College for Women 2:2.
133. Florida Board of Control, Biennial Reports of September 1, 1916, 233.
134. Rowena Diamond, "History of the Florida State College for Women, 1853-1929," unpublished report, Florida State University, 1930.
135. Effie Rolf, Papers, bound into 1915 Edition of The Florida Flambeau, Robert Manning Strozier Library, Special Collections, Florida State University [henceforth ERP].
136. Diamond, "History."
137. Bulletin of the Florida State College for Women 2:2, 80.
138. Diamond, "History."
139. Students' Hand Book, 1915.
140. Dodd, "Florida State College," 62.
141. Diamond, "History."
142. Report of the Board of Control of State Educational Institutions of Florida for the Period Beginning January 1st, 1909, and Ending December 31st, 1910.
143. By constrast, the morning bell at the Normal and Industrial College for Negroes rang at 5:30 a.m. every morning. A bugle was sounded in front of the men's dormitory. Men and women students shared a dining hall, though they lived in separate dormitory facilities. Sketches of campus life of later years can be found in Neyland and Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University.
144. Flastacowo - Yearbook of the Florida State College for Women, 1910, 4-7.
145. Dodd, "Florida State College," 57.
146. MLB, Box 2, Book 4, 265.
147. Letter, A. A. Murphree to Orville Brewer, July 11, 1905, MLB, 261.
148. Dodd, "Florida State College," 95-96.
149. Dodd, "Florida State College," 95-96.
150. Florida Board of Control, Minutes, July 8, 1905. In some cases, but not all, women held fewer credentials. Salaries at the Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students were the lowest of all. See Neyland and Riley, The History of Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University.
151. Florida Flambeau, 4 March 1916.
152. Florida Flambeau, 4 March 1916.
153. Dodd, "Florida State College," 83.
154. Tyack and Hansot, Learning Together.
155. Letter, A. A. Murphree to Rachel M. Axford, July 19, 1905, MLB, 315.
156. Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Florida for the Two Years Ending June 30, 1914, 300.
157. ERP.
158. Florida Flambeau, 4 December 1915.
159. Edward Conradi, "Memoirs of Edward Conradi" (Tallahassee: Florida State University, n.d.).
160. Florida Board of Control, Biennial Reports of Jan. 5, 1911, 96.
161. Dodd, "Florida State College," 48-49.
162. Dodd, "Florida State College," 63; Mildred M. Usher, III, "A History of Women's Intercollegiate Athletics at Florida State University from 1905 to 1972" (Ph.D. Diss., Florida State University, 1980).
163. Dodd, "Florida State College," 63; Mildred M. Usher, III, "A History of Women's Intercollegiate Athletics at Florida State University from 1905 to 1972" (Ph.D. Diss., Florida State University, 1980).
164. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Alma Mater.
165. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era; Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Alma Mater.
166. Report of the Board of Control of the State Educational Institutions of Florida for the Period Beginning January 1, 1908, and Ending January 1, 1909.