Crime, community and creeping consequentialism

Criminal Law Review

Volumn 1996, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 220-230

  Ashworth, Andrew ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0038958426     PISSN: 0011135X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. C. Pollard, "Public Safety, Accountability and the Courts", [1996] Crim.L.R. 152.
2. For fuller discussion, see A. Ashworth, The Criminal Process (1994).
3. See, e.g. M. Hough, "Thinking about Effectiveness" (1987) 27 B.J. Criminal 70; R. Reiner, The Politics of the Police (2nd ed., 1992), pp.146-156.
4. See, e.g. M. Hough, "Thinking about Effectiveness" (1987) 27 B.J. Criminal 70; R. Reiner, The Politics of the Police (2nd ed., 1992), pp.146-156.
5. Indeed, some of it emanates from the Home office's own Research and Planning Unit: e.g. R. Clarke and M. Hough, Crime and Police Effectiveness (1984).
6. For brief discussion, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp. 10-14.
7. See, e.g. Paris, Abdullahi and Miller (1993) 97 Cr.App.R. 99.
8. See, e.g. Bonisch v. Austria A. 92 (1985).
9. A. 256 (1993).
10. The European Court of Human Rights has now decided the case of Murray v. United Kingdom: see The Times, February 9, 1996.
11. I use the word "curtail" because, although no person is forced to speak, adverse inferences may be drawn from silence.
12. For detailed analysis, see the essays in D. Wall and R. Young (eds.), Access to Justice (1996).
13. See Brogan v. United Kingdom (1988) 11 E.H.R.R. 117; Brannigan and McBride v. United Kingdom (1994) 17 E.H.R.R. 539. See C. Gearty and J. Kimbell, Terrorism and the Rule of Law (1995).
14. Welch v. U.K. (1995) 20 E.H.R.R. 247.
15. It is worth noting that the House of Commons Home Affairs Committee was sceptical of a number of arguments by the police for greater powers, on the grounds of their shaky empirical basis (many anecdotes, few surveys) and of the importance of preserving the freedom of citizens from intrusion by the state: Organized Crime (House of Commons, Session 1994-95).
16. Labour Party, A Quiet Life: Tough Action on Criminal Neighbours (1995), criticised by A. von Hirsch et al., "Overtaking on the Right" (1995) 145 New L.J. 1501.
17. This proposition needs fuller argument than can be given here. See R. M. Dworkin, "Principle, Policy and Procedure", in C. Tapper (ed.), Crime, Proof and Punishment (1981), discussed in Ashworth, The Criminal Process, Chap. 2.
18. This proposition needs fuller argument than can be given here. See R. M. Dworkin, "Principle, Policy and Procedure", in C. Tapper (ed.), Crime, Proof and Punishment (1981), discussed in Ashworth, The Criminal Process, Chap. 2.
19. Note also the increased reliance on MI5 and other security services for such investigations: cf. L. Lustgarten and I. Leigh, In From the Cold: National Security and Parliamentary Democracy (1994), Chaps. 3 and 4.
20. See D. McBarnet, "It's not what you do but the way that you do it", in D. Downes (ed.), Unravelling Criminal Justice (1992), for the argument that existing policies make it easier for the wealthy to undermine the objectives of the law.
21. For research findings about power relations in police stations and their effects on some suspects, see e.g. B. Irving and L. Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: the Psychological Approach, Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure Research Study No. 1 (1980); D. Brown, T. Ellis and K. Larcombe, Changing the Code: Police detention under the revised P.A.C. E. codes of practice, Home Office Research Study No. 129 (1993), and G. Gudjonsson, The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions and Testimony (1992).
22. For research findings about power relations in police stations and their effects on some suspects, see e.g. B. Irving and L. Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: the Psychological Approach, Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure Research Study No. 1 (1980); D. Brown, T. Ellis and K. Larcombe, Changing the Code: Police detention under the revised P.A.C. E. codes of practice, Home Office Research Study No. 129 (1993), and G. Gudjonsson, The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions and Testimony (1992).
23. For research findings about power relations in police stations and their effects on some suspects, see e.g. B. Irving and L. Hilgendorf, Police Interrogation: the Psychological Approach, Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure Research Study No. 1 (1980); D. Brown, T. Ellis and K. Larcombe, Changing the Code: Police detention under the revised P.A.C. E. codes of practice, Home Office Research Study No. 129 (1993), and G. Gudjonsson, The Psychology of Interrogations, Confessions and Testimony (1992).
24. This distinction is developed in my "Victim Impact Statements and Sentencing" [1993] Crim.L.R. 498.
25. See N. Lacey and L. Zedner, "Discourses of Community in Criminal Justice" (1995) 22 J.L.S. 301.
26. Compare, e.g., J. Braithwaite, Crime, Shame and Reintegration (1989), and the Discussion Paper issued by the New Zealand Ministry of Justice, Restorative Justice (1995).
27. Compare, e.g., J. Braithwaite, Crime, Shame and Reintegration (1989), and the Discussion Paper issued by the New Zealand Ministry of Justice, Restorative Justice (1995).
28. e.g. A. Etzioni, The Spirit of the Community (1995), and C. Murray, Underclass: The Crisis Deepens (1994).
29. e.g. A. Etzioni, The Spirit of the Community (1995), and C. Murray, Underclass: The Crisis Deepens (1994).
30. Although there is no space to pursue the debate here, it should be noted that many modern liberal theorists have taken account of the latter point: e.g. J. Raz, The Morality of Freedom (1987).
31. cf. the interpretation of R. M. Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (1977), Chap. 1, by A. E. Bottoms and R. Brownsword, "Dangerousness and Rights", in J. W. Hinton (ed.), Dangerousness: Problems of Assessment and Prediction (1983).
32. cf. the interpretation of R. M. Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (1977), Chap. 1, by A. E. Bottoms and R. Brownsword, "Dangerousness and Rights", in J. W. Hinton (ed.), Dangerousness: Problems of Assessment and Prediction (1983).
33. Evidence to the House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, March 24, 1993.
34. For a summary of research, see R. Reiner, The Politics of the Police (2nd ed., 1992), Chap. 2; for similar, more recent findings, see M. Maguire and C. Norris, The Conduct and Supervision of Police Investigations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 5 (1993).
35. For a summary of research, see R. Reiner, The Politics of the Police (2nd ed., 1992), Chap. 2; for similar, more recent findings, see M. Maguire and C. Norris, The Conduct and Supervision of Police Investigations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 5 (1993).
36. ibid., and M. Maguire and C. Norris, "Police Investigations: Practice and Malpractice", in S. Field and P. Thomas (eds.), Justice and Efficiency? (1994). For discussion, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp.71-84, and P. Scraton, "Denial, Neutralisation and Disqualification", in M. McConville and L. Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis (1994), pp.102-106.
37. ibid., and M. Maguire and C. Norris, "Police Investigations: Practice and Malpractice", in S. Field and P. Thomas (eds.), Justice and Efficiency? (1994). For discussion, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp.71-84, and P. Scraton, "Denial, Neutralisation and Disqualification", in M. McConville and L. Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis (1994), pp.102-106.
38. ibid., and M. Maguire and C. Norris, "Police Investigations: Practice and Malpractice", in S. Field and P. Thomas (eds.), Justice and Efficiency? (1994). For discussion, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp.71-84, and P. Scraton, "Denial, Neutralisation and Disqualification", in M. McConville and L. Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis (1994), pp.102-106.
39. ibid., and M. Maguire and C. Norris, "Police Investigations: Practice and Malpractice", in S. Field and P. Thomas (eds.), Justice and Efficiency? (1994). For discussion, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp.71-84, and P. Scraton, "Denial, Neutralisation and Disqualification", in M. McConville and L. Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis (1994), pp.102-106.
40. Report, Cmnd. 2263 of 1993, Chap. 1, para. 24.
41. Above, p. 154.
42. See, e.g. Maguire and Norris (above, n.27), and J. Baldwin and T. Moloney, Supervision of Police Investigations in Serious Criminal Cases, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 4 (1992).
43. For recent findings, see P. A. J. Waddington, Liberty and Order (1994), Chap. 6.
44. The Confait Inquiry (1977), discussed at [1978] Crim.L.R. 117.
45. Royal Commission on Criminal Justice (1993), Chap. 2.
46. M. McConville, A. Sanders and R. Leng, The Case for the Prosecution (1991), Chaps. 4 and 5.
47. Compare, for example, A. A. S. Zuckerman, The Principles of Criminal Evidence (1989), Chap. 15, and the Note of Dissent by M. Zander, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice, Report (1993), p.234, with Ashworth, The Criminal Process (1994), pp.29-34 and 301-303.
48. Compare, for example, A. A. S. Zuckerman, The Principles of Criminal Evidence (1989), Chap. 15, and the Note of Dissent by M. Zander, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice, Report (1993), p.234, with Ashworth, The Criminal Process (1994), pp.29-34 and 301-303.
49. Compare, for example, A. A. S. Zuckerman, The Principles of Criminal Evidence (1989), Chap. 15, and the Note of Dissent by M. Zander, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice, Report (1993), p.234, with Ashworth, The Criminal Process (1994), pp.29-34 and 301-303.
50. See also the arguments of I. Dennis, "Instrumental Protection, Human Right or Functional Necessity? Reassessing the Privilege against Self-Incrimination" (1995) 54 Camb. L.J. 342.
51. See n.16, above.
52. In Search of Criminal Justice, Association of Chief Police Officers (September 1995).
53. cf. Royal Commission on Criminal Justice (1993), para. 1.12.
54. cf. Ashworth, The Criminal Process, Chap. 4.
55. e.g. T. Tyler, Why People Obey the Law (1990).
56. Consultation Paper, Disclosure: a Consultation Document (Home Office, 1995), with Home Affairs Committee, Organised Crime (H.C. 18-I, 1995), para. 151; for other criticisms, see R. Leng, "Losing Sight of the Defendant: the Government's Proposals on Pre-Trial Disclosure" [1995] Crim.L.R. 704.
57. Consultation Paper, Disclosure: a Consultation Document (Home Office, 1995), with Home Affairs Committee, Organised Crime (H.C. 18-I, 1995), para. 151; for other criticisms, see R. Leng, "Losing Sight of the Defendant: the Government's Proposals on Pre-Trial Disclosure" [1995] Crim.L.R. 704.
58. Consultation Paper, Disclosure: a Consultation Document (Home Office, 1995), with Home Affairs Committee, Organised Crime (H.C. 18-I, 1995), para. 151; for other criticisms, see R. Leng, "Losing Sight of the Defendant: the Government's Proposals on Pre-Trial Disclosure" [1995] Crim.L.R. 704.
59. See n.39, above.
60. See, e.g. Consultation Paper on Disclosure (above, n.43).
61. One example, though controversial, is the so-called right to trial by jury, criticised in Ashworth, The Criminal Process, pp.246-252.
62. For elaboration, see Ashworth, The Criminal Process, Chap. 2.
63. See, e.g. R. Leng, The Right to Silence in Police Interrogation: a Study of some of the Issues underlying the Debate, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 10 (1993).
64. See n. 19, above.
65. For legal advisers, the stream of evidence includes J. Baldwin, The Role of Legal Representatives at Police Stations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 3 (1992), and M. McConville, J. Hodgson, A. Pavlovic and L. Bridges, Standing Accused (1993). The Law Society has instituted a training programme to improve matters, but the practical results are not yet known: L. Bridges and J. Hodgson, "Improving Custodial Legal Advice" [1995] Crim.L.R. 101. For appropriate adults, see B. Littlechild, "Reassessing the Role of the Appropriate Adult" [1995] Crim.L.R. 540. See generally the essays by Bridges and by Nobles and Schiff in McConville and Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis.
66. For legal advisers, the stream of evidence includes J. Baldwin, The Role of Legal Representatives at Police Stations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 3 (1992), and M. McConville, J. Hodgson, A. Pavlovic and L. Bridges, Standing Accused (1993). The Law Society has instituted a training programme to improve matters, but the practical results are not yet known: L. Bridges and J. Hodgson, "Improving Custodial Legal Advice" [1995] Crim.L.R. 101. For appropriate adults, see B. Littlechild, "Reassessing the Role of the Appropriate Adult" [1995] Crim.L.R. 540. See generally the essays by Bridges and by Nobles and Schiff in McConville and Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis.
67. For legal advisers, the stream of evidence includes J. Baldwin, The Role of Legal Representatives at Police Stations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 3 (1992), and M. McConville, J. Hodgson, A. Pavlovic and L. Bridges, Standing Accused (1993). The Law Society has instituted a training programme to improve matters, but the practical results are not yet known: L. Bridges and J. Hodgson, "Improving Custodial Legal Advice" [1995] Crim.L.R. 101. For appropriate adults, see B. Littlechild, "Reassessing the Role of the Appropriate Adult" [1995] Crim.L.R. 540. See generally the essays by Bridges and by Nobles and Schiff in McConville and Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis.
68. For legal advisers, the stream of evidence includes J. Baldwin, The Role of Legal Representatives at Police Stations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 3 (1992), and M. McConville, J. Hodgson, A. Pavlovic and L. Bridges, Standing Accused (1993). The Law Society has instituted a training programme to improve matters, but the practical results are not yet known: L. Bridges and J. Hodgson, "Improving Custodial Legal Advice" [1995] Crim.L.R. 101. For appropriate adults, see B. Littlechild, "Reassessing the Role of the Appropriate Adult" [1995] Crim.L.R. 540. See generally the essays by Bridges and by Nobles and Schiff in McConville and Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis.
69. For legal advisers, the stream of evidence includes J. Baldwin, The Role of Legal Representatives at Police Stations, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Research Study No. 3 (1992), and M. McConville, J. Hodgson, A. Pavlovic and L. Bridges, Standing Accused (1993). The Law Society has instituted a training programme to improve matters, but the practical results are not yet known: L. Bridges and J. Hodgson, "Improving Custodial Legal Advice" [1995] Crim.L.R. 101. For appropriate adults, see B. Littlechild, "Reassessing the Role of the Appropriate Adult" [1995] Crim.L.R. 540. See generally the essays by Bridges and by Nobles and Schiff in McConville and Bridges (eds.), Criminal Justice in Crisis.