Mansions, men, women, and the creation of multiple publics in Eighteenth-century British North America

Journal of Social History

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 385-408

  Kross, Jessica ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038938280     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.1999.0063     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
2. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
3. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
4. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
5. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
6. Richard L. Bushman, The Refinement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York, 1993); Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia 1740-1790 (New York and London, 1984); Cary Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America: Why Demand," in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth Century (Charlottesville and London, 1994), 483-697; Edward A. Chappell, "Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America," ibid., 167-232; Bernard L. Herman, Architecture and Rural Life in Central Delaware, 1700-1900 (Knoxville, 1987), chapters 2 and 3; Dell Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia," in Dell Upton and John Michael Vlach, eds., Common Places: Readings in American Vernacular Architecture (Athens, GA, 1986), 315-335.
7. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
8. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
9. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
10. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
11. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
12. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
13. Carson, "Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 682-683. For a somewhat different take on the meaning of Mount Vernon and Monticello see Robert F. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence: Monticello, Mount Vernon, and the Men Who Built Them," Eighteenth-Century Studies 26 (1993): 543-580. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, tr. Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1-62, passim; Karen V. Hansen, A Very Social Time: Crafting Community in Antebellum New England (Berkeley, 1994); Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, 1958, ppb. 1989). Habermas is in vogue these days. Two recent studies which use his ideas are T. H. Breen, "Making History: The Force of Public Opinion and the Last Years of Slavery in Revolutionary Massachusetts," in Ronald Hoffman, Mechal Sobel, and Fredrika J. Teute, eds., Through a Glass Darkly: Reflections on Personal Identity in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1997), 67-95, and Nancy Isenberg, " 'Pillars in the Same Temple and Priests of the Same Worship': Woman's Rights and the Politics of Church and State in Antebellum America," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 98-128. Isenberg also discusses Hannah Arendt's work (see fn. 5).
14. Arendt, The Human Condition, 14.
15. For a discussion of the concept of "female culture" and a fine historiographic overview see Joan E. Cashin, ed., Our Common Affairs: Texts from Women in the Old South (Baltimore and London, 1996), 1-41. For an overview of the literature discussing "separate spheres" see Hansen, A Very Social Time, 15-19. It cannot be an accident that the middle classes took up these values at about the same time that America underwent a housing revolution which allowed for the construction of larger, less expensive houses. Partially the increase in housing size was due to new forms of building called "balloon" construction which allowed houses to be made of less massive, hence less expensive, framing, and which went up much faster.
16. For a discussion of the concept of "female culture" and a fine historiographic overview see Joan E. Cashin, ed., Our Common Affairs: Texts from Women in the Old South (Baltimore and London, 1996), 1-41. For an overview of the literature discussing "separate spheres" see Hansen, A Very Social Time, 15-19. It cannot be an accident that the middle classes took up these values at about the same time that America underwent a housing revolution which allowed for the construction of larger, less expensive houses. Partially the increase in housing size was due to new forms of building called "balloon" construction which allowed houses to be made of less massive, hence less expensive, framing, and which went up much faster.
17. This definition combines some of the insights of Habermas, and some of Hansen. For a critique of this part of Habermas's argument see David S. Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters in British America (Chapel Hill and London, 1997), xv-xvii.
18. This paragraph develops its ideas from a number of sources. On the need to recognize the historical elements of contingency, see Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, tr. George Simpson (Glencoe, IL, 1960). For an understanding of the impermance of this kind of social entity see Victor Turner's discussion of communitas in The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Ithaca,1977), chapters 3 and 4, and pp. 202-203. For an interesting discussion of the relativity of meaning in the context of the concept of culture see Michael J. Rozbicki, The Complete Colonial Gentleman: Cultural Legitimacy in Plantation America (Charlottesville, 1998), 19-23.
19. This paragraph develops its ideas from a number of sources. On the need to recognize the historical elements of contingency, see Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, tr. George Simpson (Glencoe, IL, 1960). For an understanding of the impermance of this kind of social entity see Victor Turner's discussion of communitas in The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Ithaca,1977), chapters 3 and 4, and pp. 202-203. For an interesting discussion of the relativity of meaning in the context of the concept of culture see Michael J. Rozbicki, The Complete Colonial Gentleman: Cultural Legitimacy in Plantation America (Charlottesville, 1998), 19-23.
20. This paragraph develops its ideas from a number of sources. On the need to recognize the historical elements of contingency, see Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society, tr. George Simpson (Glencoe, IL, 1960). For an understanding of the impermance of this kind of social entity see Victor Turner's discussion of communitas in The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Ithaca,1977), chapters 3 and 4, and pp. 202-203. For an interesting discussion of the relativity of meaning in the context of the concept of culture see Michael J. Rozbicki, The Complete Colonial Gentleman: Cultural Legitimacy in Plantation America (Charlottesville, 1998), 19-23.
21. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
22. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
23. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
24. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
25. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
26. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
27. For the importance of taverns see Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton 1774, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, 1948); Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness: The First Century of Urban life in America 1625-1742 (New York, 1955), 109, 432, 267-268, 269; Kym S. Rice, Early American Taverns: For the Entertainment of Friends and Strangers (Chicago, 1983), 38-41; David W. Conroy, In Public Houses: Drink & the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill and London,1995); Edward M. Cook, The Fathers of the Towns: Leadership and Community Structure in Eighteenth-Century New England (Baltimore, 1976); Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, chapter 5; [Lord Adam Gordon,] "Journal of an Officer who Travelled in America and the West Indies in 1764 and 1765," in Travels in the American Colonies ed. Newton D. Mereness (New York, 1961), 404, 397.
28. Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America: 1743-1776 (London, Oxford, New York, 1955), 164-165, 366-367, 168-169, 369-371; Bruce C. Daniels, Puritans at Play: Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England (New York, 1995), 116; Rice, Early American Taverns, 108-110.
29. Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America: 1743-1776 (London, Oxford, New York, 1955), 164-165, 366-367, 168-169, 369-371; Bruce C. Daniels, Puritans at Play: Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England (New York, 1995), 116; Rice, Early American Taverns, 108-110.
30. Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America: 1743-1776 (London, Oxford, New York, 1955), 164-165, 366-367, 168-169, 369-371; Bruce C. Daniels, Puritans at Play: Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England (New York, 1995), 116; Rice, Early American Taverns, 108-110.
31. Plantation homes often had housekeepers who worked with the plantation mistress. See The Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion, ed. Hunter Dickinson Farish, (Williamsburg, 1965), xxx. Servants, rather than a house's mistress, used the kitchen for socializing (The Diary of Elizabeth Drinker, ed. Elaine Forman Crane [Boston, 1991], 1:xxvi).
32. Plantation homes often had housekeepers who worked with the plantation mistress. See The Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian 1773-1774: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion, ed. Hunter Dickinson Farish, (Williamsburg, 1965), xxx. Servants, rather than a house's mistress, used the kitchen for socializing (The Diary of Elizabeth Drinker, ed. Elaine Forman Crane [Boston, 1991], 1:xxvi).
33. There is a large literature on whether women's lives were getting "better" or "worse" in the eighteenth century. A lot depends upon definition. If we are talking about increasing opportunities, especially among the elite, than we can look at Cynthia A. Kierner "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 449-480 and Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, chapter 4. Recent arguments for declining opportunities are found in Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), chapter 9; Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Women Before the Bar: Gender, Law, & Society in Connecticut (Chapel Hill and London, 1995); and Jane Kamensky, Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1997).
34. There is a large literature on whether women's lives were getting "better" or "worse" in the eighteenth century. A lot depends upon definition. If we are talking about increasing opportunities, especially among the elite, than we can look at Cynthia A. Kierner "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 449-480 and Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, chapter 4. Recent arguments for declining opportunities are found in Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), chapter 9; Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Women Before the Bar: Gender, Law, & Society in Connecticut (Chapel Hill and London, 1995); and Jane Kamensky, Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1997).
35. There is a large literature on whether women's lives were getting "better" or "worse" in the eighteenth century. A lot depends upon definition. If we are talking about increasing opportunities, especially among the elite, than we can look at Cynthia A. Kierner "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 449-480 and Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, chapter 4. Recent arguments for declining opportunities are found in Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), chapter 9; Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Women Before the Bar: Gender, Law, & Society in Connecticut (Chapel Hill and London, 1995); and Jane Kamensky, Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1997).
36. There is a large literature on whether women's lives were getting "better" or "worse" in the eighteenth century. A lot depends upon definition. If we are talking about increasing opportunities, especially among the elite, than we can look at Cynthia A. Kierner "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 449-480 and Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, chapter 4. Recent arguments for declining opportunities are found in Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), chapter 9; Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Women Before the Bar: Gender, Law, & Society in Connecticut (Chapel Hill and London, 1995); and Jane Kamensky, Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1997).
37. There is a large literature on whether women's lives were getting "better" or "worse" in the eighteenth century. A lot depends upon definition. If we are talking about increasing opportunities, especially among the elite, than we can look at Cynthia A. Kierner "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 449-480 and Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, chapter 4. Recent arguments for declining opportunities are found in Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), chapter 9; Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Women Before the Bar: Gender, Law, & Society in Connecticut (Chapel Hill and London, 1995); and Jane Kamensky, Governing the Tongue: The Politics of Speech in Early New England (New York and Oxford, 1997).
38. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
39. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
40. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
41. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
42. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
43. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
44. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
45. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
46. For a discussion on household size see Robert V. Wells, The Population of the British Colonies in America before 1776: A Survey of Census Data (Princeton, 1975, chapter 8). While it is impossible to know exactly how many great houses eighteenth-century colonists built, Thomas Tileston Waterman identified some forty-five in Virginia (Thomas Tileston Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia 1706-1776 [New York, 1945], 413-424) . Of 708,550 houses surveyed in a 1798 federal house census the mean value of a house was $300 and the median $135. Some 3,808 were worth more than $3,000, 875 more than $6,000. The grandest mansion in the survey contained 15 rooms distributed over three stories and 8,757 square feet. It and only two other houses were valued at over $30,000. (Lee Soltow, "Egalitarian America and its Inegalitarian Housing During the Federal Period," Social Science History 9 [1985]: 199-213.) See also Soltow, "Housing Characteristics on the Pennsylvania Frontier: Mifflin County Dwelling Values in 1798," Pennsylvania History 47 (1980): 57-70; Billy G. Smith, "The Material Lives of Laboring Philadelphians, 1750-1800," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd. Ser., 38 (1981): 163-202; Sharon V. Sallinger, " Spaces, Inside and Outside, in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (1995): 1-31; Bushman, Refinement of America, 110; Kevin M. Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular: Lifestyles of the Colonial Elite," in Carson, et al., Consuming Interests, 4, and "Mansion People: Kinship, Class, and Architecture in Western Massachusetts in the Mid Eighteenth Century," Winterthur Portfolio 19 (1984): 231-255.
47. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
48. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
49. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
50. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
51. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
52. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
53. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
54. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
55. The extent and timing of women's authority in colonial America is still much debated. See Lois Carr and Lorena Walsh, "The Planter's Wife: The Experience of White Women in Seventeenth-Century Maryland, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd. Ser., 34 (1977): 542-571; Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (Chapel Hill, 1986); David E. Narrett, "Men's Wills and Women's Property Rights in Colonial New York," in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, 1989), 91-133; Dayton, Women Before the Bar; Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, & Anxious Patriarchs, chapter 9. For taverns or coffee houses see Conroy, In Public Houses; Jessica Kross, " 'If you will not drink with me, you must fight with me': The Sociology of Drinking in the Middle Colonies," Pennsylvania History 64 (1997): 28-55; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness, 109; Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 112. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 33.
56. Information on Mount Vernon comes from Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia, 271-297, and Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook (Mount Vernon, 1968). Richard Bushman, Refinement of America, 113; Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina (Savannah, 1984), 63; George B. Tatum, Philadelphia Georgian: The City House of Samuel Powel and Some of its Eighteenth-Century Neighbors (Middletown, CT, 1976), 87. I am counting the downstairs hall as a room since it was used as such.
57. Information on Mount Vernon comes from Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia, 271-297, and Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook (Mount Vernon, 1968). Richard Bushman, Refinement of America, 113; Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina (Savannah, 1984), 63; George B. Tatum, Philadelphia Georgian: The City House of Samuel Powel and Some of its Eighteenth-Century Neighbors (Middletown, CT, 1976), 87. I am counting the downstairs hall as a room since it was used as such.
58. Information on Mount Vernon comes from Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia, 271-297, and Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook (Mount Vernon, 1968). Richard Bushman, Refinement of America, 113; Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina (Savannah, 1984), 63; George B. Tatum, Philadelphia Georgian: The City House of Samuel Powel and Some of its Eighteenth-Century Neighbors (Middletown, CT, 1976), 87. I am counting the downstairs hall as a room since it was used as such.
59. Information on Mount Vernon comes from Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia, 271-297, and Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook (Mount Vernon, 1968). Richard Bushman, Refinement of America, 113; Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina (Savannah, 1984), 63; George B. Tatum, Philadelphia Georgian: The City House of Samuel Powel and Some of its Eighteenth-Century Neighbors (Middletown, CT, 1976), 87. I am counting the downstairs hall as a room since it was used as such.
60. Information on Mount Vernon comes from Waterman, The Mansions of Virginia, 271-297, and Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook (Mount Vernon, 1968). Richard Bushman, Refinement of America, 113; Mills Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina (Savannah, 1984), 63; George B. Tatum, Philadelphia Georgian: The City House of Samuel Powel and Some of its Eighteenth-Century Neighbors (Middletown, CT, 1976), 87. I am counting the downstairs hall as a room since it was used as such.
61. Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 620. My hierarchy of rooms was constructed by not only reading some of the literature about space but also by
62. Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 620. My hierarchy of rooms was constructed by not only reading some of the literature about space but also by looking at eighteenth-century houses. See Bushman, Refinement of America, Carson, (above); Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular," in Carson, et al., Of Consuming Interests; Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture," in Upton and Vlach, Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. House books are mentioned in various footnotes in this article and also in Bushman, Refinement of America, 459, fn 15.
63. Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 620. My hierarchy of rooms was constructed by not only reading some of the literature about space but also by looking at eighteenth-century houses. See Bushman, Refinement of America, Carson, (above); Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular," in Carson, et al., Of Consuming Interests; Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture," in Upton and Vlach, Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. House books are mentioned in various footnotes in this article and also in Bushman, Refinement of America, 459, fn 15.
64. Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 620. My hierarchy of rooms was constructed by not only reading some of the literature about space but also by looking at eighteenth-century houses. See Bushman, Refinement of America, Carson, (above); Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular," in Carson, et al., Of Consuming Interests; Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture," in Upton and Vlach, Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. House books are mentioned in various footnotes in this article and also in Bushman, Refinement of America, 459, fn 15.
65. Carson, "The Revolution in Colonial British America," in Carson, et al, Of Consuming Interests, 620. My hierarchy of rooms was constructed by not only reading some of the literature about space but also by looking at eighteenth-century houses. See Bushman, Refinement of America, Carson, (above); Sweeney, "High-Style Vernacular," in Carson, et al., Of Consuming Interests; Upton, "Vernacular Domestic Architecture," in Upton and Vlach, Readings in American Vernacular Architecture. House books are mentioned in various footnotes in this article and also in Bushman, Refinement of America, 459, fn 15.
66. "Journal of William Black, 1744," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1 (1877): 249.
67. Cynthia Kierner also makes this point in "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender in the Southern Colonies," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 471-474.
68. The quotes are from Marquis de Chastellux, Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781 and 1782, ed. Howard C. Rice, Jr., 2 vols., (Chapel Hill, 1963) 1: 214, 176, See also pp. 119, 160. For the same observations see also "Journal of Jean-François-Louis, Comte de Clermont-Crèvecoeur," The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783 tr. and ed. Howard C. Rice, Jr., and Anne S. K. Brown, 2 vols., (Princeton, 1972), 1:21.
69. The quotes are from Marquis de Chastellux, Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781 and 1782, ed. Howard C. Rice, Jr., 2 vols., (Chapel Hill, 1963) 1: 214, 176, See also pp. 119, 160. For the same observations see also "Journal of Jean-François-Louis, Comte de Clermont-Crèvecoeur," The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1780, 1781, 1782, 1783 tr. and ed. Howard C. Rice, Jr., and Anne S. K. Brown, 2 vols., (Princeton, 1972), 1:21.
70. Fithian, Journal and Letters, 57, 59.
71. Hamilton, Itinerarium, 63, 173. Bayard's brother is not further identified.
72. Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of Josiah Quincy Jun. (Boston, 1825, repr. New York, 1971), 101-102, 110.
73. Chastellux, Travels 2:392. It is now assumed that the various epics of Ossian, translated by James Macpherson beginning in 1762, were actually his composition, and not the early works that Jefferson and Chastellux believed them to be. See Howard D. Weinbrot, Britannia's Issue: The Rise of British Literature from Dryden to Ossian (Cambridge, 1995).
74. Chastellux, Travels 2:392. It is now assumed that the various epics of Ossian, translated by James Macpherson beginning in 1762, were actually his composition, and not the early works that Jefferson and Chastellux believed them to be. See Howard D. Weinbrot, Britannia's Issue: The Rise of British Literature from Dryden to Ossian (Cambridge, 1995).
75. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 38; David Zaret, "Religion, Science, and Printing in the Public Spheres in Seventeenth-Century England," in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 212-235.
76. Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 38; David Zaret, "Religion, Science, and Printing in the Public Spheres in Seventeenth-Century England," in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 212-235.
77. Graham Hood, The Governor's Palace in Williamsburg: A Cultural Study (Williamsburg, 1991), 211; Milton E. Flower, John Dickinson: Conservative Revolutionary (Charlottesville, 1983), 86, 187.
78. Graham Hood, The Governor's Palace in Williamsburg: A Cultural Study (Williamsburg, 1991), 211; Milton E. Flower, John Dickinson: Conservative Revolutionary (Charlottesville, 1983), 86, 187.
79. Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina, 30, 109; Alice R. Huger Smith and D. E. Huger Smith, The Dwelling Houses of Charleston, South Carolina (New York, n.d., repr of 1917 ed.), 138; "Nathaniel Russell House," Charleston County, National Register of Historical Places, Inventory, South Carolina State Archives; Gervase Wheeler, Homes for the People in Suburb and Country (New York, 1972, repr of 1855 ed.), 179.
80. Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina, 30, 109; Alice R. Huger Smith and D. E. Huger Smith, The Dwelling Houses of Charleston, South Carolina (New York, n.d., repr of 1917 ed.), 138; "Nathaniel Russell House," Charleston County, National Register of Historical Places, Inventory, South Carolina State Archives; Gervase Wheeler, Homes for the People in Suburb and Country (New York, 1972, repr of 1855 ed.), 179.
81. Lane, Architecture of the Old South: South Carolina, 30, 109; Alice R. Huger Smith and D. E. Huger Smith, The Dwelling Houses of Charleston, South Carolina (New York, n.d., repr of 1917 ed.), 138; "Nathaniel Russell House," Charleston County, National Register of Historical Places, Inventory, South Carolina State Archives; Gervase Wheeler, Homes for the People in Suburb and Country (New York, 1972, repr of 1855 ed.), 179.
82. Kevin J. Hayes, The Library of William Byrd of Westover (Madison, 1997), 37 and fn 111; The Great American Gentleman: William Byrd of Westover in Virginia: His Secret Diary for the Years 1709-1712, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York, 1963), 203; "Journal of William Black, 1744," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1 (1877): 407; Fithian, Journal and Letters, xxx, 7, 45.
83. Kevin J. Hayes, The Library of William Byrd of Westover (Madison, 1997), 37 and fn 111; The Great American Gentleman: William Byrd of Westover in Virginia: His Secret Diary for the Years 1709-1712, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York, 1963), 203; "Journal of William Black, 1744," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1 (1877): 407; Fithian, Journal and Letters, xxx, 7, 45.
84. Kevin J. Hayes, The Library of William Byrd of Westover (Madison, 1997), 37 and fn 111; The Great American Gentleman: William Byrd of Westover in Virginia: His Secret Diary for the Years 1709-1712, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York, 1963), 203; "Journal of William Black, 1744," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1 (1877): 407; Fithian, Journal and Letters, xxx, 7, 45.
85. Kevin J. Hayes, The Library of William Byrd of Westover (Madison, 1997), 37 and fn 111; The Great American Gentleman: William Byrd of Westover in Virginia: His Secret Diary for the Years 1709-1712, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (New York, 1963), 203; "Journal of William Black, 1744," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1 (1877): 407; Fithian, Journal and Letters, xxx, 7, 45.
86. Dalzell, "Constructing Independence," Eighteenth-Century Studies, 26 (1993): 574. Dalzell asks what public and private mean under these circumstances.
87. Wendell Garrett, American Colonial: Puritan Simplicity to Georgian Grace (New York, 1995), 260.
88. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
89. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
90. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
91. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
92. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
93. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
94. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
95. Byrd, Great American Gentleman, passim; The Papers of Benjamin Franklin ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, 1959), 3:115, fn 4. Cadwallader Colden's papers are published as the New-York Historical Society Collections vols. 50-56 (1917-1923); Hannah Logan's Courtship: A True Narrative, ed. Albert Cook Meyers (Phildelphia, 1904), 139; Quincy, Memoirs, 133. However, Dickinson had already published his Farmer's Letters before he acquired Fair Hill. Milton W. Hamilton, "The Library of Sir William Johnson," New-York Historical Society Quarterly 40 (1956): 209-251. The "old study" is mentioned in Sir William's probate inventory, Papers of Sir William Johnson, ed. Milton W. Hamilton (Albany, 1962) 13:650.
96. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-174. For an overview of the literature see Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 9-39; Cashin, Our Common Affairs, chapter 1.
97. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-174. For an overview of the literature see Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 9-39; Cashin, Our Common Affairs, chapter 1.
98. Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966): 151-174. For an overview of the literature see Linda K. Kerber, "Separate Spheres, Female Worlds, Woman's Place: The Rhetoric of Women's History," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 9-39; Cashin, Our Common Affairs, chapter 1.
99. Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 81-87; Fithian, Journal and Letters, 56; Kierner, "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 468-471.
100. Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 81-87; Fithian, Journal and Letters, 56; Kierner, "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 468-471.
101. Rhys Isaac, The Transformation of Virginia, 81-87; Fithian, Journal and Letters, 56; Kierner, "Hospitality, Sociability, and Gender," Journal of Southern History 62 (1996): 468-471.
102. Rodris Roth, "Tea Drinking in 18th-Century America: Its Etiquette and Equipage," Bulletin of the United States National Museum 225:14 (1961): 70.
103. James Fordyce, Sermons to Young Women, published in 1765, quoted in Kevin J. Hayes, A Colonial Woman's Bookshelf (Knoxville, 1996), 58-59. Fordyce was one of the most popular books of its kind in eighteenth-century England, going through fourteen editions by 1813. Kathryn Kirkpatrick argues that its intended audience was not the upper classes in England but the new middle class. ("Sermons and Strictures: Conduct-Book Propriety and Property Relations in Late Eighteenth-Century England," in Beth Fowkes Tobin, ed., History, Gender & Eighteenth-Century Literature [Athens, GA, 1994], 198-226); Kamensky, Governing the Tongue, 183, 184.
104. James Fordyce, Sermons to Young Women, published in 1765, quoted in Kevin J. Hayes, A Colonial Woman's Bookshelf (Knoxville, 1996), 58-59. Fordyce was one of the most popular books of its kind in eighteenth-century England, going through fourteen editions by 1813. Kathryn Kirkpatrick argues that its intended audience was not the upper classes in England but the new middle class. ("Sermons and Strictures: Conduct-Book Propriety and Property Relations in Late Eighteenth-Century England," in Beth Fowkes Tobin, ed., History, Gender & Eighteenth-Century Literature [Athens, GA, 1994], 198-226); Kamensky, Governing the Tongue, 183, 184.
105. James Fordyce, Sermons to Young Women, published in 1765, quoted in Kevin J. Hayes, A Colonial Woman's Bookshelf (Knoxville, 1996), 58-59. Fordyce was one of the most popular books of its kind in eighteenth-century England, going through fourteen editions by 1813. Kathryn Kirkpatrick argues that its intended audience was not the upper classes in England but the new middle class. ("Sermons and Strictures: Conduct-Book Propriety and Property Relations in Late Eighteenth-Century England," in Beth Fowkes Tobin, ed., History, Gender & Eighteenth-Century Literature [Athens, GA, 1994], 198-226); Kamensky, Governing the Tongue, 183, 184.
106. Chastellux, Travels in North America 1:301, fn 30. The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney 1739-1762, ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill, 1972), 33. Pinckney probably read classical authors in the translations which became available at the end of the seventeenth century.
107. Chastellux, Travels in North America 1:301, fn 30. The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney 1739-1762, ed. Elise Pinckney (Chapel Hill, 1972), 33. Pinckney probably read classical authors in the translations which became available at the end of the seventeenth century.
108. The Edenton cartoon and Iredell letter appear in Inez Parker Cumming, "The Edenton Ladies' Tea-Party," Georgia Review 8 (1954): 395, 391-2.
109. The Journal of Esther Edwards Burr, 1754-1757, ed., Carol F. Karlsen and Laurie Crumpacker (New Haven, 1984), 257.
110. David S. Shields tries to make the case for Elizabeth Magawley as an American salonniere, but he does so by showing her desire for such an institution rather than her success at creating one. He does provide evidence for the conventional view of women as superficial and trivial, the "Coquets, Romps, Prudes, and Idiots" that Magawley is forced to admit exist among women, even as she suggests there are also "Women of Sense," and "Rakes, Fops, Coxcombs, and down-right Fools" among men. His discussion of the tea table emphasizes wit rather than substance. (Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters chapter 4, quote on p. 99). For a discussion of women in the salons of France see Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Culture History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994). French officers' comments are found in The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1:21, 246, and Chastellux, Travels, 1:81.
111. David S. Shields tries to make the case for Elizabeth Magawley as an American salonniere, but he does so by showing her desire for such an institution rather than her success at creating one. He does provide evidence for the conventional view of women as superficial and trivial, the "Coquets, Romps, Prudes, and Idiots" that Magawley is forced to admit exist among women, even as she suggests there are also "Women of Sense," and "Rakes, Fops, Coxcombs, and down-right Fools" among men. His discussion of the tea table emphasizes wit rather than substance. (Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters chapter 4, quote on p. 99). For a discussion of women in the salons of France see Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Culture History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994). French officers' comments are found in The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1:21, 246, and Chastellux, Travels, 1:81.
112. David S. Shields tries to make the case for Elizabeth Magawley as an American salonniere, but he does so by showing her desire for such an institution rather than her success at creating one. He does provide evidence for the conventional view of women as superficial and trivial, the "Coquets, Romps, Prudes, and Idiots" that Magawley is forced to admit exist among women, even as she suggests there are also "Women of Sense," and "Rakes, Fops, Coxcombs, and down-right Fools" among men. His discussion of the tea table emphasizes wit rather than substance. (Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters chapter 4, quote on p. 99). For a discussion of women in the salons of France see Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Culture History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994). French officers' comments are found in The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1:21, 246, and Chastellux, Travels, 1:81.
113. David S. Shields tries to make the case for Elizabeth Magawley as an American salonniere, but he does so by showing her desire for such an institution rather than her success at creating one. He does provide evidence for the conventional view of women as superficial and trivial, the "Coquets, Romps, Prudes, and Idiots" that Magawley is forced to admit exist among women, even as she suggests there are also "Women of Sense," and "Rakes, Fops, Coxcombs, and down-right Fools" among men. His discussion of the tea table emphasizes wit rather than substance. (Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters chapter 4, quote on p. 99). For a discussion of women in the salons of France see Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Culture History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994). French officers' comments are found in The American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army 1:21, 246, and Chastellux, Travels, 1:81.
114. Cumming, "Edenton Ladies' Tea-Party," Georgia Review 8 (1954): 389; Daphne Spain, Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill and London, 1992), 123, Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), 185.
115. Cumming, "Edenton Ladies' Tea-Party," Georgia Review 8 (1954): 389; Daphne Spain, Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill and London, 1992), 123, Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), 185.
116. Cumming, "Edenton Ladies' Tea-Party," Georgia Review 8 (1954): 389; Daphne Spain, Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill and London, 1992), 123, Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge, 1989), 185.
117. "Journal of Jean-François-Louis, Comte de Clermont-Crèvecoeur," American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army, 82; Moreau de St. Méry's American Journey [1793-1798] tr. and ed. Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts (Garden City, N.Y., 1947), 289.
118. "Journal of Jean-François-Louis, Comte de Clermont-Crèvecoeur," American Campaigns of Rochambeau's Army, 82; Moreau de St. Méry's American Journey [1793-1798] tr. and ed. Kenneth Roberts and Anna M. Roberts (Garden City, N.Y., 1947), 289.
119. Nancy Tomes, "The Quaker Connection: Visiting Patterns among Women in the Philadelphia Society of Friends, 1750-1800," in Michael Zuckerman, ed., Friends and Neighbors: Group Life in America's First Plural Society (Philadelphia, 1982), 179; Diary of Elizabeth Drinker, 1:18; Nancy Shippen Her Journal Book: The International Romance of a Young Lady of Fashion of Colonial Philadelphia with Letters to Her and about Her, ed. Ethel Ames (New York and London, 1968), 198-199.
120. Nancy Tomes, "The Quaker Connection: Visiting Patterns among Women in the Philadelphia Society of Friends, 1750-1800," in Michael Zuckerman, ed., Friends and Neighbors: Group Life in America's First Plural Society (Philadelphia, 1982), 179; Diary of Elizabeth Drinker, 1:18; Nancy Shippen Her Journal Book: The International Romance of a Young Lady of Fashion of Colonial Philadelphia with Letters to Her and about Her, ed. Ethel Ames (New York and London, 1968), 198-199.
121. Nancy Tomes, "The Quaker Connection: Visiting Patterns among Women in the Philadelphia Society of Friends, 1750-1800," in Michael Zuckerman, ed., Friends and Neighbors: Group Life in America's First Plural Society (Philadelphia, 1982), 179; Diary of Elizabeth Drinker, 1:18; Nancy Shippen Her Journal Book: The International Romance of a Young Lady of Fashion of Colonial Philadelphia with Letters to Her and about Her, ed. Ethel Ames (New York and London, 1968), 198-199.
122. The Spectator, No. 37, April 12, 1711, in The Spectator, ed. Donald F. Bond, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965), I: 152-159. Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook, 70. For women's readings see Hayes, Colonial Woman's Bookshelf; Sally D. Mason, "Mama, Rachel, and Molly: Three Generations of Carroll Women," in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution, 272-273; Letters of the Franks Family (1733-1748) ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, Studies in American Jewish History, 5 (Waltham, MA, 1968), 142, 50.
123. The Spectator, No. 37, April 12, 1711, in The Spectator, ed. Donald F. Bond, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965), I: 152-159. Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook, 70. For women's readings see Hayes, Colonial Woman's Bookshelf; Sally D. Mason, "Mama, Rachel, and Molly: Three Generations of Carroll Women," in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution, 272-273; Letters of the Franks Family (1733-1748) ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, Studies in American Jewish History, 5 (Waltham, MA, 1968), 142, 50.
124. The Spectator, No. 37, April 12, 1711, in The Spectator, ed. Donald F. Bond, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965), I: 152-159. Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook, 70. For women's readings see Hayes, Colonial Woman's Bookshelf; Sally D. Mason, "Mama, Rachel, and Molly: Three Generations of Carroll Women," in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution, 272-273; Letters of the Franks Family (1733-1748) ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, Studies in American Jewish History, 5 (Waltham, MA, 1968), 142, 50.
125. The Spectator, No. 37, April 12, 1711, in The Spectator, ed. Donald F. Bond, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965), I: 152-159. Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook, 70. For women's readings see Hayes, Colonial Woman's Bookshelf; Sally D. Mason, "Mama, Rachel, and Molly: Three Generations of Carroll Women," in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution, 272-273; Letters of the Franks Family (1733-1748) ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, Studies in American Jewish History, 5 (Waltham, MA, 1968), 142, 50.
126. The Spectator, No. 37, April 12, 1711, in The Spectator, ed. Donald F. Bond, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1965), I: 152-159. Mount Vernon: An Illustrated Handbook, 70. For women's readings see Hayes, Colonial Woman's Bookshelf; Sally D. Mason, "Mama, Rachel, and Molly: Three Generations of Carroll Women," in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Women in the Age of the American Revolution, 272-273; Letters of the Franks Family (1733-1748) ed. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, Studies in American Jewish History, 5 (Waltham, MA, 1968), 142, 50.
127. On the Delaware Valley poets see Shields, Civil Tongues & Polite Letters, 126-140.
128. David S. Shields, " 'The Wits and Poets of Pennsylvania': New Light on the Rise of Belles Lettres in Provincial Pennsylvania, 1720-1740," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 109 (1985): 100.
129. Cashin, Our Common Affairs, 16.
130. Spain, Gendered Spaces, 123.