Cleveland's Child Welfare System and the "American Dilemma," 1941-1964

Social Service Review

Volumn 72, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 112-136

  Morton, Marian J ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038935026     PISSN: 00377961     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/515735     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper, 1944).
2. The racial exclusion by private child-care agencies in Cleveland in the 1940s is described by Andrew Billingsley and Jeanne M. Giovannoni, Children of the Storm-Black Children and American Child Welfare (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972) pp 125-30; in Cleveland, New York, and Philadelphia, by Child Welfare League of America, Child Care Facilities for Dependent and Neglected Negro Children in Three Cities - New York City Philadelphia Cleveland (New York: Child Welfare League of America, 1945); and in New York by Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mami Clark's Northside Center (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), pp. 1-12. Specific information on Cleveland is found in "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions of the Planning Committee to the Board of Trustees, Welfare Federation " July 24, 1945, Child Welfare Collection, Western Reserve Historical Society (WRHS), Cleveland. This collection was donated to the society by Earl Landau, formerly with the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services. Without these invaluable documents and Landau's wise advice, this article would not have been possible. I wish also to thank for their helpful insights, Dottie Klemm, senior social service supervisor for the Department of Family and Children's Services of the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services, and Robert M. Ginn, former president of the Cleveland Welfare Federation Board of Trustees. I am also grateful to John Carroll University for a George G. Grauel Faculty Fellowship and a summer stipend.
3. The racial exclusion by private child-care agencies in Cleveland in the 1940s is described by Andrew Billingsley and Jeanne M. Giovannoni, Children of the Storm-Black Children and American Child Welfare (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972) pp 125-30; in Cleveland, New York, and Philadelphia, by Child Welfare League of America, Child Care Facilities for Dependent and Neglected Negro Children in Three Cities - New York City Philadelphia Cleveland (New York: Child Welfare League of America, 1945); and in New York by Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mami Clark's Northside Center (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), pp. 1-12. Specific information on Cleveland is found in "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions of the Planning Committee to the Board of Trustees, Welfare Federation " July 24, 1945, Child Welfare Collection, Western Reserve Historical Society (WRHS), Cleveland. This collection was donated to the society by Earl Landau, formerly with the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services. Without these invaluable documents and Landau's wise advice, this article would not have been possible. I wish also to thank for their helpful insights, Dottie Klemm, senior social service supervisor for the Department of Family and Children's Services of the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services, and Robert M. Ginn, former president of the Cleveland Welfare Federation Board of Trustees. I am also grateful to John Carroll University for a George G. Grauel Faculty Fellowship and a summer stipend.
4. The racial exclusion by private child-care agencies in Cleveland in the 1940s is described by Andrew Billingsley and Jeanne M. Giovannoni, Children of the Storm-Black Children and American Child Welfare (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972) pp 125-30; in Cleveland, New York, and Philadelphia, by Child Welfare League of America, Child Care Facilities for Dependent and Neglected Negro Children in Three Cities - New York City Philadelphia Cleveland (New York: Child Welfare League of America, 1945); and in New York by Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race, and Power: Kenneth and Mami Clark's Northside Center (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), pp. 1-12. Specific information on Cleveland is found in "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions of the Planning Committee to the Board of Trustees, Welfare Federation " July 24, 1945, Child Welfare Collection, Western Reserve Historical Society (WRHS), Cleveland. This collection was donated to the society by Earl Landau, formerly with the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services. Without these invaluable documents and Landau's wise advice, this article would not have been possible. I wish also to thank for their helpful insights, Dottie Klemm, senior social service supervisor for the Department of Family and Children's Services of the Cuyahoga County Department of Human Services, and Robert M. Ginn, former president of the Cleveland Welfare Federation Board of Trustees. I am also grateful to John Carroll University for a George G. Grauel Faculty Fellowship and a summer stipend.
5. Murray L. Gruber, "Inequality in the Social Services," Social Service Review 54 (March 1980): 59-75, quote on 63-64. See also Seth Low, America's Children and Youth in Institutions, 1950, 1960-1964 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Children's Bureau, 1965). In 1985, the U.S. General Accounting Office discovered that in three states "white children were more likely to be placed in privately operated facilities than were nonwhite children, who more typically were placed in public facilities" (U.S. General Accounting Office, Report to the Honorable George Miller, Chairman, Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families House of Representatives, Residential Care: Patterns of Child Placement in Three States [Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Accounting Office, June 28, 1985], p. ii).
6. Murray L. Gruber, "Inequality in the Social Services," Social Service Review 54 (March 1980): 59-75, quote on 63-64. See also Seth Low, America's Children and Youth in Institutions, 1950, 1960-1964 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Children's Bureau, 1965). In 1985, the U.S. General Accounting Office discovered that in three states "white children were more likely to be placed in privately operated facilities than were nonwhite children, who more typically were placed in public facilities" (U.S. General Accounting Office, Report to the Honorable George Miller, Chairman, Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families House of Representatives, Residential Care: Patterns of Child Placement in Three States [Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Accounting Office, June 28, 1985], p. ii).
7. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
8. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
9. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
10. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
11. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
12. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
13. In the late 1980s, the growing recognition that our child welfare system fails too many children revived among policy makers and politicians a century-old debate about the virtues of institutions for children. Historians have joined that debate, providing historical perspectives, if not compelling conclusions. Orphanages have found new admirers in Howard Goldstein, The Home on Gorham Street and the Voices of Its Children (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996); Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Richard McKenzie, The Home: A Memoir of Growing Up in an Orphanage (New York: Basic, 1996). New critics include Hyman Bogen, The Luckiest Orphans: A History of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); and Peter C. Holloran, Boston's Wayward Children: Social Services for Homeless Children, 1830-1930 (London: Associated University Presses, 1989). Even-handed accounts include Kenneth Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); and Reena Sigman Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, 1994).
14. "Report of the Committee to Study the Shortage of Placement Facilities for Children," December 21, 1942, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 29, folder 719, WRHS.
15. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon, 1976), pp. 222-28; Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), pp. 62-89; Harriet Pipes McAdoo, ed., Black Families, 3d ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997), pp. 1-114.
16. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon, 1976), pp. 222-28; Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), pp. 62-89; Harriet Pipes McAdoo, ed., Black Families, 3d ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997), pp. 1-114.
17. Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750-1925 (New York: Pantheon, 1976), pp. 222-28; Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), pp. 62-89; Harriet Pipes McAdoo, ed., Black Families, 3d ed. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997), pp. 1-114.
18. Cleveland Gazette (April 2, 1887).
19. Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), pp. 3-31.
20. "Annual Report, 1880," Beech Brook MS 4544, container 2, folder 14, p. 32, WRHS.
21. "Annual Report, 1860," and "Annual Report, 1902," Beech Brook MS 4544, container 2, folder 13; container 3, folder 16, WRHS.
22. "1907 Annual Report," Beech Brook MS 4544, container 3, folder 16, WRHS.
23. "1899 Annual Report," Children's Aid Society MS 3923, container 1, folder 15, p. 12, WRHS.
24. "Record of Children in Home," 1862-76, and "Children's Record," 1874-79, Children's Aid Society MS 3923, container 3, folders 55, 57, WRHS.
25. "Children's Register" and "Blotter," Children's Aid Society MS 3923, container 3, folders 64, 52, WRHS.
26. "Record Book of Admissions," 1888-1915, and "1891 Annual Report," Jones Home MS 4049, container 1, folders 1, 16, WRHS.
27. "1915 Annual Report," Jones Home MS 4049, container 1, folder 16, WRHS.
28. "St. Joseph's Admissions Book, 1884-1894," Cleveland Catholic Diocese Archives, Cleveland.
29. "St. Vincent's Admissions, Book B, 1881-1910," Cleveland Catholic Diocese Archives.
30. Michael J. Hynes, History of the Diocese of Cleveland: Origin and Growth (Cleveland: Diocese of Cleveland, 1953), p. 222.
31. Jewish Orphan Asylum, "Annual Report, 1907," Bellefaire MS 3665, container 14, pp. 38-39, WRHS.
32. Cleveland Gazette (August 17, 1896; March 7, 1896).
33. Dorothy Salem, To Better Our World: Black Women in Organized Reform, 1890-1920 (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson, 1990), pp. 82-84. The only private institution for black children in Ohio was the Colored Orphan Asylum in Cincinnati, which had substantial financial support from whites. See David A. Gerber, Black Ohio and the Color Lines, 1860-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), pp. 157-67.
34. Dorothy Salem, To Better Our World: Black Women in Organized Reform, 1890-1920 (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson, 1990), pp. 82-84. The only private institution for black children in Ohio was the Colored Orphan Asylum in Cincinnati, which had substantial financial support from whites. See David A. Gerber, Black Ohio and the Color Lines, 1860-1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976), pp. 157-67.
35. Cleveland Humane Society Board minutes, March 1917, Children's Services MS 4020, container 2, folder 20, WRHS.
36. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1920 census, Summit County, vol. 196, enumeration district 251, sheet 8, lists four black children from a total of 140; "Committee on Colored Children," April 22, 1931, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788 container 29, folder 724, WRHS.
37. See U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1920 census, Cuyahoga County, vol. 35, enumeration district 61, sheets 1, 2, 3, for St. Vincent's; vol. 51, enumeration district 347, sheets 1, 2, 3, for St. Joseph's; vol. 32, enumeration district 3, sheet 20, for Children's Aid Society; vol. 37, enumeration district 81, sheet 1, for Jones Home; vol. 57, enumeration district 254, sheet 21, for Protestant Orphan Asylum; vol. 41, enumeration district 243, sheet 1, for Jewish Orphan Asylum; Department of Commerce, Children under Institutional Care, 1923 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927), table 2.
38. Christopher G. Wye, "Midwest Ghetto: Patterns of Negro Life and Thought in Cleveland, Ohio, 1929-1945" (Ph.D. diss., Kent State University, 1973), p. 3; Kusmer (n. 8 above), p. 10.
39. Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 7-8, 31-53; Philip Jackson, "Black Charity in Progressive Era Chicago," Social Service Review 52 (September 1978): 400-17; Steven J. Diner, "Chicago Social Workers and Blacks in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 44 (December 1970): 393-410; Cmiel (n. 4 above), p. 126.
40. Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 7-8, 31-53; Philip Jackson, "Black Charity in Progressive Era Chicago," Social Service Review 52 (September 1978): 400-17; Steven J. Diner, "Chicago Social Workers and Blacks in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 44 (December 1970): 393-410; Cmiel (n. 4 above), p. 126.
41. Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 7-8, 31-53; Philip Jackson, "Black Charity in Progressive Era Chicago," Social Service Review 52 (September 1978): 400-17; Steven J. Diner, "Chicago Social Workers and Blacks in the Progressive Era," Social Service Review 44 (December 1970): 393-410; Cmiel (n. 4 above), p. 126.
42. Kusmer (n. 8 above), p. 255.
43. U.S. Children's Bureau, The Children's Bureau of Cleveland and Its Relation to Other Child-Welfare Agencies (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927), p. 13.
44. Report, "Present Problems of the Children's Agencies in Cleveland, November 2, 1928," Children's Services MS 4020, container 4, folder 53, WRHS.
45. Report of Marilla M. Greene, chief case supervisor, Cuyahoga County Child Welfare Board (CCCWB), December 31, 1935, Child Welfare Collection, WRHS.
46. Carol Poh Miller and Robert Wheeler, Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796-1990 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), p. 134; Kusmer (n. 8 above), p. 165-Wye (n. 26 above), p. 119.
47. Report, "Analysis of Financial Status, April 1933," Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 4, folder 56, WRHS; Jones Home Board of Managers minutes January 13, 1933, and January 12, 1934, Jones Home MS 4049, container 1, folder 8, WRHS. Federation and agency budget information, 1933-35, is found in Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 27, WRHS. See also Marshall B. Jones, "Crisis of the American Orphanage, 1931-1940," Social Service Review 63 (December 1989): 613-29.
48. Report, "Analysis of Financial Status, April 1933," Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 4, folder 56, WRHS; Jones Home Board of Managers minutes January 13, 1933, and January 12, 1934, Jones Home MS 4049, container 1, folder 8, WRHS. Federation and agency budget information, 1933-35, is found in Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 27, WRHS. See also Marshall B. Jones, "Crisis of the American Orphanage, 1931-1940," Social Service Review 63 (December 1989): 613-29.
49. Lucia Johnson Bing, Social Work in Greater Cleveland (Cleveland: Welfare Federation of Cleveland, 1938), p. 56.
50. Children's General Committee minutes, April 10, 1931, Children's Services MS 4020, containers, folder 41, WRHS.
51. CCCWB report, "Services, Case Load and Expenditures of the County Child Welfare Board from 1930 to 1936," Child Welfare Collection, p. 33, WRHS.
52. CCCWB Country District meeting minutes, 1933, Child Welfare Collection p. 2, WRHS.
53. CCCWB, memo, from L. E. Murtaugh, county administrator, to William A. Nesi, executive secretary, Division of Child Welfare, September 1, 1959, Child Welfare Collection, WRHS. This memo also describes the evolution of payment for services for "crippled children" and for foster home placement by private agencies.
54. CCCWB, supervisors' meeting minutes, October 18, 1934, October 31, 1935, Child Welfare Collection, WRHS.
55. Cleveland Welfare Federation, "Report of the Committee on the Child Care Field (Wells Report)," December 1, 1941, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 49, folder 1180, apps. 3, 4, WRHS; CCCWB, "Annual Report, 1941," Child Welfare Collection, p. 14, WRHS.
56. Cleveland Welfare Federation, "Report of the Committee on the Child Care Field (Wells Report)," December 1, 1941, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 49, folder 1180, apps. 3, 4, WRHS; CCCWB, "Annual Report, 1941," Child Welfare Collection, p. 14, WRHS.
57. Wye (n. 26 above), p. 67.
58. Quoted in ibid., p. 157.
59. Cleveland Welfare Federation, The Central Area Social Study (Cleveland: Welfare Federation, 1944), pp. 33, 148.
60. "Report of the Joint Committee . . . on the Inventory of Foster Care Needs," April 26, 1949, details these reports from various committees from 1943 forward, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 27, folder 742, WRHS. See also "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions" (n. 2 above).
61. "Report of the Joint Committee . . . on the Inventory of Foster Care Needs," April 26, 1949, details these reports from various committees from 1943 forward, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 27, folder 742, WRHS. See also "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions" (n. 2 above).
62. "Rough Draft of the Report of the Children's and Case Work Councils' Joint Committee . . . , May 5, 1944," Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 29, folder 719, WRHS.
63. Cleveland Welfare Federation, "1944 Annual Report of the Children's and Case Work Council for the Year," Child Welfare Collection, p. 4, WRHS.
64. Child Welfare League of America (n. 2 above), pp. 165, 173, 105, 154, 255.
65. Ibid., p. 170.
66. Judge Eastman of Juvenile Court, "Why Children Should Not Remain in Detention Home . . . ," August 7, 1944, vertical file, WRHS.
67. Dorothy P. Weiss, "Placement Plans for Fifteen Negro Children - How Adequate?" (master's thesis, Western Reserve University, School of Applied Social Science, 1944), pp. 31, 34-35, 45-48, 61. Names of children are pseudonyms and have been changed in order to protect their privacy.
68. "Report of the Subcommittee on Children's Institutions" (n. 2 above), pp. 5, 7; Letter from Reverent A. J. Murphy to Harry F. Affelder, June 23, 1945, Federation of Catholic Community Services/Catholic Charities Corporation Records, "St. Joseph's Orphanage, 1933-1945," box 26, Cleveland Catholic Diocese Archives.
69. Cleveland Welfare Federation Board of Trustees minutes, June 1945, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 3, WRHS.
70. Children's Council, Welfare Federation of Cleveland, "Report of Committee on Interracial Programs," December 1949, Child Welfare Collection, p. 1, WRHS.
71. Ibid.; Cmiel (n. 4 above), pp. 132, 146, notes the Chicago federation's half-hearted efforts to compel racial integration.
72. Ibid.; Cmiel (n. 4 above), pp. 132, 146, notes the Chicago federation's half-hearted efforts to compel racial integration.
73. This series of discussions is described in "Report of the Joint Committee . . . on the Inventory of Foster Care Needs" (n. 44 above), p. 2. See, also, a letter to Mrs. Julius Fryer, a county commissioner, from the Cleveland Welfare Federation Board of Trustees, October 24, 1945, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 2, folder 23.
74. "Children's Council Report on Children's Institutions," July 2, 1947, and August 4, 1947, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 2, WRHS; Report, "Need for Additional Public Welfare Services in Cuyahoga County," February 1947, WRHS, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 49, folder 1180, p. 4, WRHS.
75. "Children's Council Report on Children's Institutions," July 2, 1947, and August 4, 1947, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 2, WRHS; Report, "Need for Additional Public Welfare Services in Cuyahoga County," February 1947, WRHS, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 49, folder 1180, p. 4, WRHS.
76. Report, "Subcommittee on Care of County Wards," November 13, 1945, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 48, folder 1166, WRHS: CCCWB, "Five-Year Plan: Report of Study Committee," 1948, Child Welfare Collection, pp. 24, 4, 5, WRHS. This report also includes a history of the development of county services for children and a discussion of the division of duties between public and private agencies. See Billingsley and Giovannoni (n. 2 above), pp. 111-13, on the New York City legislation made fairly ineffective by the provision that institutions could give preference to coreligionists, exempting Jewish and, to a lesser extent, Catholic agencies.
77. Report, "Subcommittee on Care of County Wards," November 13, 1945, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 48, folder 1166, WRHS: CCCWB, "Five-Year Plan: Report of Study Committee," 1948, Child Welfare Collection, pp. 24, 4, 5, WRHS. This report also includes a history of the development of county services for children and a discussion of the division of duties between public and private agencies. See Billingsley and Giovannoni (n. 2 above), pp. 111-13, on the New York City legislation made fairly ineffective by the provision that institutions could give preference to coreligionists, exempting Jewish and, to a lesser extent, Catholic agencies.
78. Report, "Subcommittee on Care of County Wards," November 13, 1945, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 48, folder 1166, WRHS: CCCWB, "Five-Year Plan: Report of Study Committee," 1948, Child Welfare Collection, pp. 24, 4, 5, WRHS. This report also includes a history of the development of county services for children and a discussion of the division of duties between public and private agencies. See Billingsley and Giovannoni (n. 2 above), pp. 111-13, on the New York City legislation made fairly ineffective by the provision that institutions could give preference to coreligionists, exempting Jewish and, to a lesser extent, Catholic agencies.
79. Kusmer (n. 8 above), pp. 113-54; Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 389-96; Child Welfare League of America (n. 2 above), p. 243. Child welfare was not an overriding concern for the male leadership of the NAACP, but, in 1937, its president complained to Mayor Harold Burton that black boys were detained too long at the detention home before admission to Cleveland Boys' Home. The black youngsters, claimed the NAACP, spent an average of 28 days, the white, 12 days, in the detention facility. One African-American boy spent 63 days at the facility; three spent 62 days before their court-ordered placement at Hudson took effect. Letter to Chester K. Gillespie, president of the Cleveland NAACP, February 10, 1937, WRHS, Papers of the NAACP, pt. 12, series C, The Midwest Records, microfilm reel 25.
80. Kusmer (n. 8 above), pp. 113-54; Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 389-96; Child Welfare League of America (n. 2 above), p. 243. Child welfare was not an overriding concern for the male leadership of the NAACP, but, in 1937, its president complained to Mayor Harold Burton that black boys were detained too long at the detention home before admission to Cleveland Boys' Home. The black youngsters, claimed the NAACP, spent an average of 28 days, the white, 12 days, in the detention facility. One African-American boy spent 63 days at the facility; three spent 62 days before their court-ordered placement at Hudson took effect. Letter to Chester K. Gillespie, president of the Cleveland NAACP, February 10, 1937, WRHS, Papers of the NAACP, pt. 12, series C, The Midwest Records, microfilm reel 25.
81. Kusmer (n. 8 above), pp. 113-54; Wye (n. 26 above), pp. 389-96; Child Welfare League of America (n. 2 above), p. 243. Child welfare was not an overriding concern for the male leadership of the NAACP, but, in 1937, its president complained to Mayor Harold Burton that black boys were detained too long at the detention home before admission to Cleveland Boys' Home. The black youngsters, claimed the NAACP, spent an average of 28 days, the white, 12 days, in the detention facility. One African-American boy spent 63 days at the facility; three spent 62 days before their court-ordered placement at Hudson took effect. Letter to Chester K. Gillespie, president of the Cleveland NAACP, February 10, 1937, WRHS, Papers of the NAACP, pt. 12, series C, The Midwest Records, microfilm reel 25.
82. "Analysis of Interracial Questionnaire," 1949 Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 31, p. 2, WRHS.
83. CCCWB, supervisors' meeting minutes, September 4, 1947, and February 26, 1948, Child Welfare Collection, WRHS.
84. Dayle Warren Wills, "A Study of the Development and Function of the Children's Receiving Home of the Cuyahoga County Child Welfare Board" (master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1952), pp. 20-21, 34.
85. Cleveland Welfare Federation, "Census of Children under Care, March 31, 1953," Child Welfare Collection, vol. 2, table 1, p. 1, table 2, p. 2, WRHS
86. Ibid., p. 3.
87. Children's Council, Welfare Federation of Cleveland, "Children Our Mutual Concern," 1958, Child Welfare Collection, p. 8. WRHS.
88. Marshall B. Jones, "Decline of the American Orphanage, 1941-1980," Social Service Review 67 (September 1993): 464-68, 473-74.
89. "Rough Draft of Report on Future Program for Children's Aid Society," June 22, 1944, Children's Aid Society MS 3923, container 1, folder 26, WRHS.
90. Report, Division of Child Welfare, "Total Cost and Averages for 1953 of Children in Boarding Homes, Institutions and Relatives' Homes," Child Welfare Collection, p. 4, WRHS.
91. Report, "Special Studies, Bellefaire, The Jewish Orphan Home, Cleveland, Ohio, 1939, Population Trends," Bellefaire MS 3665, container 19, folder 3, WRHS.
92. "Report on 458 Children Recommended for Placement by Six Social Agencies, 1931," pamphlet, WRHS. For a discussion of culture-bound perceptions of mental illness, see Gruber (n. 3 above), pp. 63-74.
93. "Case Worker's Annual Report," 1950, Beech Brook MS 4544, container 2, folder 10, WRHS.
94. Child Welfare League of America, "Report, Blossom Hill School," October 1958, pamphlet, pp. 30, 26, ix, i, WRHS.
95. Children's Council, Welfare Federation of Cleveland, "Children Our Mutual Concern" (n. 64 above), pp. 8, 11.
96. "Minutes of Children's Council (Financial Wards of County in Out of County Institutions)," May 9, 1958, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 28, WRHS. A conversations between county personnel and federation members noted that the refusal of orphanages to take Negro children might be an impediment to county placement of other children, but nothing came of this: "Committee on Purchase of Services," April 21, 1953, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, microfilm reel 10, WRHS.
97. Russell Davis, typescript history of the Cleveland NAACP, p. 183, WRHS.
98. "Children Are our Concern," October 10, 1963, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 49, folder 1183, pp. 18-19, WRHS.
99. Children's Council minutes, March 16, 1964, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 31, folder 773, WRHS. These guidelines have not survived.
100. Report, "Children in Institutions Averaged for 1962," Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 48, folder 1156, WRHS.
101. Letter from C. A. Lindsey to the Cleveland Foundation, November 11, 1955, Cleveland Fondation MS 3627, container 2, folder "Beech Brook," WRHS.
102. Board minutes, March 1949 and May 24, 1962, Jones Home, MS 4049, container 1, folders 8, 5, WRHS.
103. Report, "Characteristics of Bellefaire Children, 1957-1963," January 26, 1965, Report of the Bellefaire Study Committee, September 7, 1965, Jewish Community Federation Archives MS 4563, container 13, folder 207, WRHS.
104. Board of Managers minutes, December 6, 1963, December 11, 1964, Jones Home MS 4049, container 1, folder 13, WRHS; Board of Trustees minutes, November 16, 1967, at the offices of Applewood Centers (formerly Children's Services), Cleveland. Chicago's Chapin Hall became racially integrated in a similar fashion. Cmiel (n. 4 above), p. 175.
105. Beech Brook Board of Trustees minutes, September 24, 1964, and November 19, 1964, and the executive director's report, March 1, 1975, at Beech Brook, Orange Village, Ohio.
106. Advisory Board minutes, October 8, 1969, box 21; "The State of the Village, 1981," Parmadale Reports, Cleveland Catholic Diocese Archives.
107. Report, "Program Inventory, Child Caring Institutions," March 1969, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 44, folder 1072, app. 1, WRHS.
108. For a discussion of the effect of these funds on institutions' clientele, see Paul Lerman, Deinstitutionalization and the Welfare State (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1984), pp. 143-50. A similar dependence developed at Chicago's Chapin Hall. Cmiel (n. 4 above), pp. 157-60.
109. Cuyahoga County Child Welfare Division Cabinet meeting, March 1, 1967, Child Welfare Collection, WRHS.
110. Cleveland Welfare Foundation, Ad Hoc Professional Subcommittee minutes, Federation for Community Planning MS 3788, container 44, folder 1072, WRHS.
111. Plain Dealer (June 26, 1966), quote on p. 1; (June 27, 1966), p. 1; (June 29, 1966), p. 1; (June 30, 1966), p. 1; (July 1, 1966), p. 1; (July 3, 1966), p. 1.
112. Cleveland Welfare Federation (n. 87 above); "Report of an Evaluation of Bessie Benner Metzenbaum Children's Center," August 13, 1981, Papers of County Commissioner Edward Feighan, box 11, Welfare-Children's Services, Cuyahoga County Archives, Cleveland, Ohio.
113. Plain Dealer (December 28, 1980), sec. A, pp. 23, 25; (July 15, 1979), p. 23.
114. Joseph M. Davis, Cuyahoga County's Children in Custody, Who Are They? What's Happening to Them (Cleveland: Federation for Community Planning, December 1978), p. 47.
115. Myrdal (n. 1 above), p. 1021.