Why empires reemerge: Imperial collapse and imperial revival in comparative perspective

Comparative Politics

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 127-145

  Motyl, Alexander J ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038901563     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422141     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
2. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
3. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
4. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
5. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
6. The literature on imperial collapse is small, but rapidly growing. For a sample, see Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Karen Barkey and Mark von Hagen, eds., After Empire: Multiethnic Societies and Nation-Building (Boulder: Westview, 1997); Norman Yoffee and George L. Cowgill, eds., The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1988); Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, eds., The End of Empire? (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997); Geir Lundestad, ed., The Fall of Great Powers (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1994).
7. Capacity refers to the degree to which a bureaucratic and coercive state apparatus is coherent and to the amount of material resources at its disposal. See Stephen M. Walt, Revolution and War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 21-22.
8. On the limitations of conditional analysis, see John L. Mackie, "Causes and Conditions," in Ernest Sosa and Michael Tooley, eds., Causation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 33-55.
9. Jean Gottmann, ed., Centre and Periphery: Spatial Variation in Politics (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980). My understanding of culture derives from Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973).
10. Jean Gottmann, ed., Centre and Periphery: Spatial Variation in Politics (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1980). My understanding of culture derives from Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973).
11. My definition reflects Doyle's: "Empire...is a relationship, formal or informal, in which one state controls the effective political sovereignty of another political society." Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 45. Suny defines empire as a "composite state in which a center dominates a periphery to the disadvantage of the periphery." Ronald Grigor Suny, "Russia, the Soviet Union and Theories of Empire," unpublished paper, March 14, 1996, p. 3. Beissinger, in contrast, rejects the very attempt to develop an empirically adequate definition of empire. Mark Beissinger, "The Persisting Ambiguity of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs, 11 (April-June 1995), 149-84.
12. My definition reflects Doyle's: "Empire...is a relationship, formal or informal, in which one state controls the effective political sovereignty of another political society." Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 45. Suny defines empire as a "composite state in which a center dominates a periphery to the disadvantage of the periphery." Ronald Grigor Suny, "Russia, the Soviet Union and Theories of Empire," unpublished paper, March 14, 1996, p. 3. Beissinger, in contrast, rejects the very attempt to develop an empirically adequate definition of empire. Mark Beissinger, "The Persisting Ambiguity of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs, 11 (April-June 1995), 149-84.
13. My definition reflects Doyle's: "Empire...is a relationship, formal or informal, in which one state controls the effective political sovereignty of another political society." Michael Doyle, Empires (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 45. Suny defines empire as a "composite state in which a center dominates a periphery to the disadvantage of the periphery." Ronald Grigor Suny, "Russia, the Soviet Union and Theories of Empire," unpublished paper, March 14, 1996, p. 3. Beissinger, in contrast, rejects the very attempt to develop an empirically adequate definition of empire. Mark Beissinger, "The Persisting Ambiguity of Empire," Post-Soviet Affairs, 11 (April-June 1995), 149-84.
14. See Giovanni Sartori, "Guidelines for Concept Analysis," in Giovanni Sartori, ed., Social Science Concepts (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1984), pp. 32-34.
15. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Thinking about Empire," in Barkey and von Hagen, eds., pp. 19-27; Alexander J. Motyl, "From Imperial Decay to Imperial Collapse: The Fall of the Soviet Empire in Comparative Perspective," in Richard L. Rudolph and David F. Good, eds., Nationalism and Empire (New York: St. Martin's, 1992), pp. 3-43.
16. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Thinking about Empire," in Barkey and von Hagen, eds., pp. 19-27; Alexander J. Motyl, "From Imperial Decay to Imperial Collapse: The Fall of the Soviet Empire in Comparative Perspective," in Richard L. Rudolph and David F. Good, eds., Nationalism and Empire (New York: St. Martin's, 1992), pp. 3-43.
17. Rein Taagepera, "Patterns of Empire Growth and Decline: Context for Russia," unpublished paper, March 1995.
18. David A. Lake, "The Rise, Fall, and Future of the Russian Empire," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., p. 42: also, Alexander J. Motyl, "This Very Delicate Balance: Empires and Imperial Trajectories," work in progress; Rey Koslowski and Friedrich V. Kratochwil, "Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System," International Organization, 48 (Spring 1994), 235.
19. David A. Lake, "The Rise, Fall, and Future of the Russian Empire," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., p. 42: also, Alexander J. Motyl, "This Very Delicate Balance: Empires and Imperial Trajectories," work in progress; Rey Koslowski and Friedrich V. Kratochwil, "Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System," International Organization, 48 (Spring 1994), 235.
20. David A. Lake, "The Rise, Fall, and Future of the Russian Empire," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., p. 42: also, Alexander J. Motyl, "This Very Delicate Balance: Empires and Imperial Trajectories," work in progress; Rey Koslowski and Friedrich V. Kratochwil, "Understanding Change in International Politics: The Soviet Empire's Demise and the International System," International Organization, 48 (Spring 1994), 235.
21. On counterfactuals see Nelson Goodman, Fact, Fiction, and Forecast (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983): Philip E. Tetlock and Aaron Belkin, Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
22. On counterfactuals see Nelson Goodman, Fact, Fiction, and Forecast (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983): Philip E. Tetlock and Aaron Belkin, Counterfactual Thought Experiments in World Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
23. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Reassessing the Soviet Crisis: Big Problems, Muddling Through, Business as Usual," Political Science Quarterly, 104 (Summer 1989), 269-80.
24. This article takes shocks as its starting point. Their source, though an important issue, need not concern us here. While they play a vital causal role, social science shocks may, like asteroids, earthquakes, and other natural shocks, be unpredictable in general and or in terms of a theory of empire. See Motyl, "This Very Delicate Balance."
25. See Ernest Nagel, The Structure of Science, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1979), p. 31.
26. See Motyl, "Thinking about Empire."
27. There is logically no reason to think that empires can be revived (or built) only wilfully. Indeed, the historical record shows that empires rise in many ways, quietly and loudly, forcibly and peacefully, intentionally and nonintentionally. Strategic marriages, for instance, were critical to the emergence of the Habsburg Empire, as was diplomacy to the rise of the tsarist, British, and German realms. See Charles Tilly, "How Empires End," and E. J. Hobsbawm, "The End of Empires," in Barkey and von Hagen, eds., pp. 1-16.
28. There is logically no reason to think that empires can be revived (or built) only wilfully. Indeed, the historical record shows that empires rise in many ways, quietly and loudly, forcibly and peacefully, intentionally and nonintentionally. Strategic marriages, for instance, were critical to the emergence of the Habsburg Empire, as was diplomacy to the rise of the tsarist, British, and German realms. See Charles Tilly, "How Empires End," and E. J. Hobsbawm, "The End of Empires," in Barkey and von Hagen, eds., pp. 1-16.
29. See Scott Gordon, The History and Philosophy of Social Science (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 624-68.
30. To assign a specific probability to some event requires a statistically significant number of cases. In historically focused small-N studies, we can at best speak of "greater" or "lesser" likelihood, but not of specific probability.
31. Barry R. Posen, "The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 29; Walt, p. 18; also, Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 5-26.
32. Barry R. Posen, "The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 29; Walt, p. 18; also, Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 5-26.
33. Barry R. Posen, "The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 29; Walt, p. 18; also, Jack Snyder, "Nationalism and the Crisis of the Post-Soviet State," Survival, 35 (Spring 1993), 5-26.
34. This definition of revolution applies regardless of whether the direction of such change is toward or away from a capitalist economy, a democratic polity, or a civil society. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Concepts and Skocpol: Ambiguity and Vagueness in the Study of Revolution," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (January 1992), 93-112. On the emergence of revolutionaries, see Chalmers Johnson, Revolutionary Change, 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970); Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
35. This definition of revolution applies regardless of whether the direction of such change is toward or away from a capitalist economy, a democratic polity, or a civil society. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Concepts and Skocpol: Ambiguity and Vagueness in the Study of Revolution," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (January 1992), 93-112. On the emergence of revolutionaries, see Chalmers Johnson, Revolutionary Change, 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970); Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
36. This definition of revolution applies regardless of whether the direction of such change is toward or away from a capitalist economy, a democratic polity, or a civil society. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Concepts and Skocpol: Ambiguity and Vagueness in the Study of Revolution," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (January 1992), 93-112. On the emergence of revolutionaries, see Chalmers Johnson, Revolutionary Change, 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970); Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
37. This definition of revolution applies regardless of whether the direction of such change is toward or away from a capitalist economy, a democratic polity, or a civil society. See Alexander J. Motyl, "Concepts and Skocpol: Ambiguity and Vagueness in the Study of Revolution," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (January 1992), 93-112. On the emergence of revolutionaries, see Chalmers Johnson, Revolutionary Change, 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); Ted Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970); Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968).
38. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
39. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
40. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
41. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
42. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
43. Otto Kirchheimer, "Confining Conditions and Revolutionary Breakthroughs," American Political Science Review, 59 (December 1965), 964-74; Barry Sautman, "Retreat from Revolution: Why Communist Systems Deradicalize" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1989); Theda Skocpol, "Social Revolutions and Mass Military Mobilization," World Politics, 40 (January 1988), 147-68; Jonathan R. Adelman, Revolution, Armies, and War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1985); Dietrich Harth, "Revolution und Mythos," in Dietrich Harth and Jan Assmann, eds., Revolution und Mythos (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1992), pp. 9-35; Walt, pp. 22-30.
44. Ideology is a controversial concept with a variety of contested meanings. See Walter Carlsnaes, The Concept of Ideology and Political Analysis (Westport: Greenwood, 1981). My uncomplicated understanding of the concept, as a coherent set of ideas rooted in language and institutions, is discussed in Ian Lustick, Unsettled States, Disputed Lands (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
45. Ideology is a controversial concept with a variety of contested meanings. See Walter Carlsnaes, The Concept of Ideology and Political Analysis (Westport: Greenwood, 1981). My uncomplicated understanding of the concept, as a coherent set of ideas rooted in language and institutions, is discussed in Ian Lustick, Unsettled States, Disputed Lands (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
46. Woodruff D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), pp. 64, 84.
47. Michael T. Florinsky, Russia: A History and an Interpretation, vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1953), pp. 797-800.
48. Mikhail Agursky, The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR (Boulder: Westview, 1987); Hubertus F. Jahn, Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Alexander J. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality: Coming to Grips with Nationalism in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 72-86; Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 84-88.
49. Mikhail Agursky, The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR (Boulder: Westview, 1987); Hubertus F. Jahn, Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Alexander J. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality: Coming to Grips with Nationalism in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 72-86; Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 84-88.
50. Mikhail Agursky, The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR (Boulder: Westview, 1987); Hubertus F. Jahn, Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Alexander J. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality: Coming to Grips with Nationalism in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 72-86; Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 84-88.
51. Mikhail Agursky, The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR (Boulder: Westview, 1987); Hubertus F. Jahn, Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); Alexander J. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality: Coming to Grips with Nationalism in the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 72-86; Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 84-88.
52. See Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968). The turn to Turkishness came with a high price, the Armenian genocide. See Ronald Grigor Suny, "Nation-making, Nation-breaking: The End of the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Community," unpublished paper, May 3, 1996.
53. See Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968). The turn to Turkishness came with a high price, the Armenian genocide. See Ronald Grigor Suny, "Nation-making, Nation-breaking: The End of the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian Community," unpublished paper, May 3, 1996.
54. Allan Janik and Stephen Toulmin, Wittgenstein's Vienna (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), pp. 13-14; Robert A. Kann, "The Dynasty and the Imperial Idea," Austrian History Yearbook, 3 (1967), 11-31.
55. Allan Janik and Stephen Toulmin, Wittgenstein's Vienna (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973), pp. 13-14; Robert A. Kann, "The Dynasty and the Imperial Idea," Austrian History Yearbook, 3 (1967), 11-31.
56. Posen, p. 32. See also Myron Weiner, "The Macedonian Syndrome: An Historical Model of International Relations and Political Development," World Politics, 23 (July 1971), 665-83.
57. This terminology is drawn from Rogers Brubaker, "National Minorities, Nationalizing States, and External National Homelands in the New Europe," Daedalus, 124 (Spring 1995), 107-32.
58. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 117-18.
59. Anna Procyk, Russian Nationalism and Ukraine (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1995).
60. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union (New York: Atheneum, 1974); Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, Islam and the Russian Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 150-63.
61. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union (New York: Atheneum, 1974); Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, Islam and the Russian Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 150-63.
62. Carole Fink, "Between the Second and Third Reichs: The Weimar Republic as 'Imperial Interregnum'," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., pp. 261-85.
63. Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nationality, pp. 103-18.
64. See Vladimir Baranovsky, "Conflict Developments on the Territory of the Former Soviet Union," SIPRI Yearbook (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1994), pp. 169-203; Roman Solchanyk, "Ukraine, the (Former) Center, Russia, and 'Russia'," Studies in Comparative Communism, 25 (March 1992), 31-45; John Dunlop, "Russia: In Search of an Identity?" in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds., New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 29-95.
65. See Vladimir Baranovsky, "Conflict Developments on the Territory of the Former Soviet Union," SIPRI Yearbook (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1994), pp. 169-203; Roman Solchanyk, "Ukraine, the (Former) Center, Russia, and 'Russia'," Studies in Comparative Communism, 25 (March 1992), 31-45; John Dunlop, "Russia: In Search of an Identity?" in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds., New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 29-95.
66. See Vladimir Baranovsky, "Conflict Developments on the Territory of the Former Soviet Union," SIPRI Yearbook (Stockholm: SIPRI, 1994), pp. 169-203; Roman Solchanyk, "Ukraine, the (Former) Center, Russia, and 'Russia'," Studies in Comparative Communism, 25 (March 1992), 31-45; John Dunlop, "Russia: In Search of an Identity?" in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras, eds., New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 29-95.
67. Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Radical Reform in Yeltsin's Russia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); Ian McAllister et al., "Communists, Privilege, and Postcommunism in Russia," International Politics, 34 (March 1997), 79-95; Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism: The Best Parallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), 393-411; Allen C. Lynch, Does Russia Have a Democratic Future? (New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1997).
68. Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Radical Reform in Yeltsin's Russia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); Ian McAllister et al., "Communists, Privilege, and Postcommunism in Russia," International Politics, 34 (March 1997), 79-95; Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism: The Best Parallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), 393-411; Allen C. Lynch, Does Russia Have a Democratic Future? (New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1997).
69. Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Radical Reform in Yeltsin's Russia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); Ian McAllister et al., "Communists, Privilege, and Postcommunism in Russia," International Politics, 34 (March 1997), 79-95; Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism: The Best Parallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), 393-411; Allen C. Lynch, Does Russia Have a Democratic Future? (New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1997).
70. Lynn D. Nelson and Irina Y. Kuzes, Radical Reform in Yeltsin's Russia (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1995); Ian McAllister et al., "Communists, Privilege, and Postcommunism in Russia," International Politics, 34 (March 1997), 79-95; Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism: The Best Parallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), 393-411; Allen C. Lynch, Does Russia Have a Democratic Future? (New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1997).
71. Mikhail Molchanov, "Russian Neo-Communism," The Harriman Review, 9 (Summer 1996), 69-79; David Remnick, "Hammer, Sickle, and Book," The New York Review of Books, 43 (May 23, 1996), 45-51.
72. Mikhail Molchanov, "Russian Neo-Communism," The Harriman Review, 9 (Summer 1996), 69-79; David Remnick, "Hammer, Sickle, and Book," The New York Review of Books, 43 (May 23, 1996), 45-51.
73. Alexander J. Motyl, Will the Non-Russians Rebel? (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 71-87; Frederick C. Barghoorn, "Russian Nationalism and Soviet Politics," in Robert Conquest, ed., The Last Empire (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), pp. 30-77; Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nalionality, pp. 161-73.
74. Alexander J. Motyl, Will the Non-Russians Rebel? (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 71-87; Frederick C. Barghoorn, "Russian Nationalism and Soviet Politics," in Robert Conquest, ed., The Last Empire (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), pp. 30-77; Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nalionality, pp. 161-73.
75. Alexander J. Motyl, Will the Non-Russians Rebel? (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 71-87; Frederick C. Barghoorn, "Russian Nationalism and Soviet Politics," in Robert Conquest, ed., The Last Empire (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1986), pp. 30-77; Motyl, Sovietology, Rationality, Nalionality, pp. 161-73.
76. Chauncy D. Harris, "Ethnic Tensions in Areas of the Russian Diaspora," Post-Soviet Geography, 34 (April 1993), 233-38; Pal Kolsto, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 135-45.
77. Chauncy D. Harris, "Ethnic Tensions in Areas of the Russian Diaspora," Post-Soviet Geography, 34 (April 1993), 233-38; Pal Kolsto, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 135-45.
78. Chauncy D. Harris, "Ethnic Tensions in Areas of the Russian Diaspora," Post-Soviet Geography, 34 (April 1993), 233-38; Pal Kolsto, Russians in the Former Soviet Republics (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 135-45.
79. Olga Alexandrova, "Russland und sein 'nahes Ausland'," in Zwischen Krise und Konsolidierung (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1995), pp. 325, 330-33; Stephen D. Shenfield, "Alternative Conceptions of Russian State Identity and Their Implications for Russian Attitudes towards Ukraine," The Harriman Review, 9 (Spring 1996), 142-47; "Vozroditsia li soiuz?" [Will the Union Be Reborn], Nezavisimaia gazeta -Stsenarii, May 23, 1996, pp. 4-5.
80. Olga Alexandrova, "Russland und sein 'nahes Ausland'," in Zwischen Krise und Konsolidierung (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1995), pp. 325, 330-33; Stephen D. Shenfield, "Alternative Conceptions of Russian State Identity and Their Implications for Russian Attitudes towards Ukraine," The Harriman Review, 9 (Spring 1996), 142-47; "Vozroditsia li soiuz?" [Will the Union Be Reborn], Nezavisimaia gazeta -Stsenarii, May 23, 1996, pp. 4-5.
81. Olga Alexandrova, "Russland und sein 'nahes Ausland'," in Zwischen Krise und Konsolidierung (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1995), pp. 325, 330-33; Stephen D. Shenfield, "Alternative Conceptions of Russian State Identity and Their Implications for Russian Attitudes towards Ukraine," The Harriman Review, 9 (Spring 1996), 142-47; "Vozroditsia li soiuz?" [Will the Union Be Reborn], Nezavisimaia gazeta -Stsenarii, May 23, 1996, pp. 4-5.
82. See Jack F. Matlock, "Dealing with a Russia in Turmoil," Foreign Affairs, 75 (May-June 1996), 38-51.
83. Rajan Menon, "In the Shadow of the Bear: Security in Post-Soviet Central Asia," International Security, 20 (Summer 1995), 149-81.
84. Heinrich Tiller, "Die militarpolitische Entwicklung in den Nachfolgestaaten der ehemaligen Sowjetunion," in Zwischen Krise und Konsolidierung, p. 352.
85. Tor Bukkvoll, Ukraine and European Security (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997), pp. 84-87.
86. The distinction between formal and informal rule basically denotes different degrees of state capacity. See Doyle, pp. 37-38.
87. Alexander J. Motyl, "Institutional Legacies and Reform Trajectories," in Adrian Karatnycky et al., eds., Nations in Transit 1977 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1977), pp. 17-22; Alexander J. Motyl, "Structural Constraints and Starting Points: The Logic of Systemic Change in Ukraine and Russia," Comparative Politics, 29 (July 1997), 433-71.
88. Alexander J. Motyl, "Institutional Legacies and Reform Trajectories," in Adrian Karatnycky et al., eds., Nations in Transit 1977 (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1977), pp. 17-22; Alexander J. Motyl, "Structural Constraints and Starting Points: The Logic of Systemic Change in Ukraine and Russia," Comparative Politics, 29 (July 1997), 433-71.
89. See Taras Kuzio, "The East Slavic Conundrum: Unity or Divergence?," unpublished paper, May 1996; Marc Nordberg and Taras Kuzio, "Nation and State Building, Historical Legacies and National Identities in Belarus and Ukraine," unpublished paper.
90. See Taras Kuzio, "The East Slavic Conundrum: Unity or Divergence?," unpublished paper, May 1996; Marc Nordberg and Taras Kuzio, "Nation and State Building, Historical Legacies and National Identities in Belarus and Ukraine," unpublished paper.
91. Liz Fuller, "Introducing the Other GUAM," RFE/RL Newsline, Dec. 1, 1997, p. 6.
92. Hendrik Spruyt, "The Prospects for Neo-Imperial and Nonimperial Outcomes in the Former Soviet Space," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., p. 331.
93. Karen Dawisha, "Constructing and Deconstructing Empire in the Post-Soviet Space," in Dawisha and Parrott, eds., pp. 342-46.
94. Sherman Garnert, "Troubled Times for Russia," IISS Strategic Survey, 1995/96 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 116-17.