The life of the party

Comparative Politics

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 101-122

  Berman, Sheri ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038879143     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422195     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Peter Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 181-83.
2. Russell Dalton, Scott Flanagan, and Paul Allen Beck, eds., Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 451. See also Russell Dalton and Scott Flanagan, "Parties under Stress: Realignment and Dealignment in Advanced Industrial Democracies," West European Politics (1982); and Samuel Barnes and Max Kaase, eds., Political Action and Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979).
3. Russell Dalton, Scott Flanagan, and Paul Allen Beck, eds., Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 451. See also Russell Dalton and Scott Flanagan, "Parties under Stress: Realignment and Dealignment in Advanced Industrial Democracies," West European Politics (1982); and Samuel Barnes and Max Kaase, eds., Political Action and Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979).
4. Russell Dalton, Scott Flanagan, and Paul Allen Beck, eds., Electoral Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies: Realignment or Dealignment? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 451. See also Russell Dalton and Scott Flanagan, "Parties under Stress: Realignment and Dealignment in Advanced Industrial Democracies," West European Politics (1982); and Samuel Barnes and Max Kaase, eds., Political Action and Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979).
5. Kay Lawson and Peter H. Merkl, "Alternative Organizations: Environmental, Supplementary, Communitarian and Anti-Authoritarian," in Kay Lawson and Peter H. Merkl, eds., When Parties Fail: Emerging Alternative Organizations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 3.
6. Michel Crozier, Samuel P. Huntington, and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy (New York: New York University Press, 1975), p. 166.
7. The two approaches dominating this inquiry were a "social structural" paradigm most extensively developed by Stein Rokkan and Seymour Martin Lipset and a "party identification" paradigm elaborated most influentially by Campbell, Converse, Miller, and Stokes. See Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Hans Daalder, "In Memory of Stein Rokkan," European Journal of Political Research, 15 (1979); Stein Rokkan and Seymour M. Lipset, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1967).
8. The two approaches dominating this inquiry were a "social structural" paradigm most extensively developed by Stein Rokkan and Seymour Martin Lipset and a "party identification" paradigm elaborated most influentially by Campbell, Converse, Miller, and Stokes. See Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Hans Daalder, "In Memory of Stein Rokkan," European Journal of Political Research, 15 (1979); Stein Rokkan and Seymour M. Lipset, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1967).
9. The two approaches dominating this inquiry were a "social structural" paradigm most extensively developed by Stein Rokkan and Seymour Martin Lipset and a "party identification" paradigm elaborated most influentially by Campbell, Converse, Miller, and Stokes. See Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960); Hans Daalder, "In Memory of Stein Rokkan," European Journal of Political Research, 15 (1979); Stein Rokkan and Seymour M. Lipset, Party Systems and Voter Alignments (New York: The Free Press, 1967).
10. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
11. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
12. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
13. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
14. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
15. Ronald Inglehart, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles among Western Publics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977); Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); "The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 65 (1971); "Postmaterialism in an Environment of Insecurity," American Political Science Review, 75 (1981); "Value Change in Industrial Societies," American Political Science Review, 81 (1987); and "Changing Values in Japan and the West," Comparative Political Studies, 14 (1892).
16. Inglehart, The Silent Revolution, p. 22.
17. Peter Mair has been particularly vociferous in stressing the overblown nature of party decline. Peter Mair, "Political Parties, Popular Legitimacy and Public Privilege," West European Politics, 18 (1995); Peter Mair and Richard S. Katz, eds., How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); and Peter Mair and D. Bartolini, Identity, Competition and Electoral Availability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Gerald Pomper, "Alive! The Political Parties after the 1980-1992 Presidential Elections," in Harvey L. Schantz, ed., American Presidential Elections (New York: State University of New York Press, 1996), makes a similar point regarding America.
18. Peter Mair has been particularly vociferous in stressing the overblown nature of party decline. Peter Mair, "Political Parties, Popular Legitimacy and Public Privilege," West European Politics, 18 (1995); Peter Mair and Richard S. Katz, eds., How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); and Peter Mair and D. Bartolini, Identity, Competition and Electoral Availability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Gerald Pomper, "Alive! The Political Parties after the 1980-1992 Presidential Elections," in Harvey L. Schantz, ed., American Presidential Elections (New York: State University of New York Press, 1996), makes a similar point regarding America.
19. Peter Mair has been particularly vociferous in stressing the overblown nature of party decline. Peter Mair, "Political Parties, Popular Legitimacy and Public Privilege," West European Politics, 18 (1995); Peter Mair and Richard S. Katz, eds., How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); and Peter Mair and D. Bartolini, Identity, Competition and Electoral Availability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Gerald Pomper, "Alive! The Political Parties after the 1980-1992 Presidential Elections," in Harvey L. Schantz, ed., American Presidential Elections (New York: State University of New York Press, 1996), makes a similar point regarding America.
20. Peter Mair has been particularly vociferous in stressing the overblown nature of party decline. Peter Mair, "Political Parties, Popular Legitimacy and Public Privilege," West European Politics, 18 (1995); Peter Mair and Richard S. Katz, eds., How Parties Organize: Change and Adaptation in Party Organizations in Western Democracies (London: Sage, 1994); and Peter Mair and D. Bartolini, Identity, Competition and Electoral Availability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). Gerald Pomper, "Alive! The Political Parties after the 1980-1992 Presidential Elections," in Harvey L. Schantz, ed., American Presidential Elections (New York: State University of New York Press, 1996), makes a similar point regarding America.
21. Paul R. Abramson and Ronald Inglehart, Value Change in Global Perspective (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), pp. 27, 41ff., 89ff. Some might think that the attitudinal differences between younger and older cohorts noted in Value Change stem from individuals' natural evolution from youthful idealism to older materialism; the authors argue, however, that their long-term data show that value scores for cohorts remain relatively constant over time.
22. Ibid., pp. 18, 38. Interestingly, Abramson and Inglehart find that the most important factor driving short-term change is variation in the rate of inflation, not unemployment.
23. Ibid., p 38.
24. Statement on the back of Inglehart, Culture Shift, quoted in ibid., p. 139.
25. However, Abramson and Inglehart postulate that the trend towards postmaterialism may have advanced the democratic wave of the last two decades. See Ronald Inglehart, "The Renaissance of Political Culture," American Political Science Review, 82 (1988).
26. Chapter titles in Culture Shift.
27. See, for example, Inglehart's The Silent Revolution, p. 5, and Culture Shift, p. 6. Also, Jonas Pontusson, "Explaining the Decline of European Social Democracy: The Role of Structural Economic Change, World Politics, 47 (1995), and "At the End of the Third Road: Swedish Social Democracy in Crisis," Politics and Society, 20 (1992).
28. See, for example, Inglehart's The Silent Revolution, p. 5, and Culture Shift, p. 6. Also, Jonas Pontusson, "Explaining the Decline of European Social Democracy: The Role of Structural Economic Change, World Politics, 47 (1995), and "At the End of the Third Road: Swedish Social Democracy in Crisis," Politics and Society, 20 (1992).
29. See, for example, Inglehart's The Silent Revolution, p. 5, and Culture Shift, p. 6. Also, Jonas Pontusson, "Explaining the Decline of European Social Democracy: The Role of Structural Economic Change, World Politics, 47 (1995), and "At the End of the Third Road: Swedish Social Democracy in Crisis," Politics and Society, 20 (1992).
30. See, for example, Inglehart's The Silent Revolution, p. 5, and Culture Shift, p. 6. Also, Jonas Pontusson, "Explaining the Decline of European Social Democracy: The Role of Structural Economic Change, World Politics, 47 (1995), and "At the End of the Third Road: Swedish Social Democracy in Crisis," Politics and Society, 20 (1992).
31. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 19-21.
32. Bo Rothstein, The Social Democratic State: The Swedish Model and the Bureaucratic Problem of Social Reforms (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), p. 24.
33. Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte," reprinted in Robert Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. 595.
34. Charles Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in 20th Century Western Europe," American Historical Review, 86 (1981); Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State: Factors of Stability and Disorganization," Policy Sciences, 15 (1983); Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein, "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," Democracy, 2 (1982); Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); and Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
35. Charles Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in 20th Century Western Europe," American Historical Review, 86 (1981); Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State: Factors of Stability and Disorganization," Policy Sciences, 15 (1983); Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein, "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," Democracy, 2 (1982); Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); and Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
36. Charles Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in 20th Century Western Europe," American Historical Review, 86 (1981); Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State: Factors of Stability and Disorganization," Policy Sciences, 15 (1983); Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein, "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," Democracy, 2 (1982); Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); and Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
37. Charles Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in 20th Century Western Europe," American Historical Review, 86 (1981); Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State: Factors of Stability and Disorganization," Policy Sciences, 15 (1983); Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein, "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," Democracy, 2 (1982); Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); and Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
38. Charles Maier, "The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in 20th Century Western Europe," American Historical Review, 86 (1981); Claus Offe, "Competitive Party Democracy and the Welfare State: Factors of Stability and Disorganization," Policy Sciences, 15 (1983); Adam Przeworski and Michael Wallerstein, "Democratic Capitalism at the Crossroads," Democracy, 2 (1982); Walter Korpi, The Working Class in Welfare Capitalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978); and Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983).
39. And it is not at all clear that their integrative dilemma was any greater with regard to postmaterialists than it had been with other groups in the past. Around the turn of the century Social Democrats struggled to form coalitions with left-liberals in order to push forward democratization; in the 1930s the social democratic response to the Depression depended on their ability to form alliances with small farmers and other members of the bourgeoisie. And in the 1950s and 1960s social democrats faced the challenge of forming alliances with white collar groups to expand the welfare state. Sheri Berman, "Ideas and Politics: Social Democratic Parties in Interwar Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1994); Gourevitch; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Gøsta Esping-Andersen and Roger Friedland, "Class Coalitions in the Making of West European Economies," Political Power and Social Theory, 3 (1982); and Adam Przeworski and John Sprague, Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
40. And it is not at all clear that their integrative dilemma was any greater with regard to postmaterialists than it had been with other groups in the past. Around the turn of the century Social Democrats struggled to form coalitions with left-liberals in order to push forward democratization; in the 1930s the social democratic response to the Depression depended on their ability to form alliances with small farmers and other members of the bourgeoisie. And in the 1950s and 1960s social democrats faced the challenge of forming alliances with white collar groups to expand the welfare state. Sheri Berman, "Ideas and Politics: Social Democratic Parties in Interwar Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1994); Gourevitch; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Gøsta Esping-Andersen and Roger Friedland, "Class Coalitions in the Making of West European Economies," Political Power and Social Theory, 3 (1982); and Adam Przeworski and John Sprague, Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
41. And it is not at all clear that their integrative dilemma was any greater with regard to postmaterialists than it had been with other groups in the past. Around the turn of the century Social Democrats struggled to form coalitions with left-liberals in order to push forward democratization; in the 1930s the social democratic response to the Depression depended on their ability to form alliances with small farmers and other members of the bourgeoisie. And in the 1950s and 1960s social democrats faced the challenge of forming alliances with white collar groups to expand the welfare state. Sheri Berman, "Ideas and Politics: Social Democratic Parties in Interwar Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1994); Gourevitch; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Gøsta Esping-Andersen and Roger Friedland, "Class Coalitions in the Making of West European Economies," Political Power and Social Theory, 3 (1982); and Adam Przeworski and John Sprague, Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
42. And it is not at all clear that their integrative dilemma was any greater with regard to postmaterialists than it had been with other groups in the past. Around the turn of the century Social Democrats struggled to form coalitions with left-liberals in order to push forward democratization; in the 1930s the social democratic response to the Depression depended on their ability to form alliances with small farmers and other members of the bourgeoisie. And in the 1950s and 1960s social democrats faced the challenge of forming alliances with white collar groups to expand the welfare state. Sheri Berman, "Ideas and Politics: Social Democratic Parties in Interwar Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1994); Gourevitch; Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Gøsta Esping-Andersen and Roger Friedland, "Class Coalitions in the Making of West European Economies," Political Power and Social Theory, 3 (1982); and Adam Przeworski and John Sprague, Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986).
43. Andrei S. Markovits and Philip S. Gorski, The German Left: Red, Green, and Beyond (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 115.
44. Ibid., pp. 44, 34.
45. Ibid., p. 81.
46. Kitschelt argues that the examination of politics purely through the conflict between postmaterialists and materialists is misleading. Instead, he asserts that during the last decades a wide range of socioeconomic trends have combined with an economic slowdown to engender a twofold shift in voter preferences: to the right on the traditional, economic right-left axis of political competition (towards more market-based solutions) and to the left on the libertarian-authoritarian dimension towards more communitarian values on noneconomic issues.These changes pose the new and comparatively more difficult set of challenges social democratic parties confronted during the 1980s. See also Mark Franklin et al. Electoral Change: Responses to Evolving Social and Attitudinal Structures in Western Countries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
47. Herbert Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 4.
48. Lawson and Merkl, "Alternative Organizations," p. 3.
49. Kay Lawson, ed., How Parties Work: Perspectives from Within (Westport: Praeger, 1994), pp. x, xiii.
50. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989); Peter Haas, ed., Special Issue on Epistemic Communities, International Organization, 46 (1992); Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, eds., Structuring Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Judith Goldstein, Ideas. Interests and American Trade Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); James Alt, "Crude Politics: Oil and the Political Economy of Unemployment in Britain and Norway, 1970-1985," British Journal of Political Science, 17 (1987).
51. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989); Peter Haas, ed., Special Issue on Epistemic Communities, International Organization, 46 (1992); Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, eds., Structuring Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Judith Goldstein, Ideas. Interests and American Trade Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); James Alt, "Crude Politics: Oil and the Political Economy of Unemployment in Britain and Norway, 1970-1985," British Journal of Political Science, 17 (1987).
52. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989); Peter Haas, ed., Special Issue on Epistemic Communities, International Organization, 46 (1992); Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, eds., Structuring Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Judith Goldstein, Ideas. Interests and American Trade Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); James Alt, "Crude Politics: Oil and the Political Economy of Unemployment in Britain and Norway, 1970-1985," British Journal of Political Science, 17 (1987).
53. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989); Peter Haas, ed., Special Issue on Epistemic Communities, International Organization, 46 (1992); Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, eds., Structuring Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Judith Goldstein, Ideas. Interests and American Trade Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); James Alt, "Crude Politics: Oil and the Political Economy of Unemployment in Britain and Norway, 1970-1985," British Journal of Political Science, 17 (1987).
54. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics (New York: The Free Press, 1989); Peter Haas, ed., Special Issue on Epistemic Communities, International Organization, 46 (1992); Kathleen Thelen and Sven Steinmo, eds., Structuring Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Judith Goldstein, Ideas. Interests and American Trade Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993); James Alt, "Crude Politics: Oil and the Political Economy of Unemployment in Britain and Norway, 1970-1985," British Journal of Political Science, 17 (1987).
55. Kitschelt, pp. 245, 249.
56. Ibid., p. 256.
57. Ibid., p. 265. See also Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), esp. chs. 7, 8.
58. Ibid., p. 265. See also Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), esp. chs. 7, 8.
59. Kitschelt argues, for example, that parties leaning towards libertarianism prefer communitarian solutions to social problems. However, most people would see communitarian and libertarian values as in conflict, rather than as part of the same political dimension. Such semantic/conceptual confusions make it occasionally difficult to follow his characterization of different national political systems and parties.
60. For example, he claims that the British Labour party and the Swedish Social Democrats have had particular difficulty in dealing with the demands of left libertarian voters because communitarianism has not been an integral part of their ideological tradition. Yet there is hardly a party of the left in Europe that has appealed to community and solidarity more than the Swedish SAP; since the late 1920s it has characterized its vision of Swedish society as the "people's home," developed an explicitly cross-class appeal, and made social solidarity, equal participation in community decision making, and decreasing power differentials integral parts of its political message. In Britain, meanwhile, the Labour party seems to be rushing headlong into an embrace of communitarianism.
61. Interestingly, the fortunes of the Swedish Green party have recovered over the last year as it has captured many social democratic voters disaffected with the SAP's welfare state cutbacks, inability to deal with unemployment, and support of the EU.
62. Frank Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change: The Social Democratic Parties of Britain, France, Germany and Spain," in Lawson, ed., How Political Parties Work, p. 280.
63. Ibid., pp. 276-77. See also Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, pp. 234-36; John Gaffney, "French Socialism and the Fifth Republic," West European Politics, 11 (July 1988); and Patrick McCarthy, ed., The French Socialists in Power, 1981-86 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987).
64. Ibid., pp. 276-77. See also Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, pp. 234-36; John Gaffney, "French Socialism and the Fifth Republic," West European Politics, 11 (July 1988); and Patrick McCarthy, ed., The French Socialists in Power, 1981-86 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987).
65. Ibid., pp. 276-77. See also Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, pp. 234-36; John Gaffney, "French Socialism and the Fifth Republic," West European Politics, 11 (July 1988); and Patrick McCarthy, ed., The French Socialists in Power, 1981-86 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987).
66. Ibid., pp. 276-77. See also Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, pp. 234-36; John Gaffney, "French Socialism and the Fifth Republic," West European Politics, 11 (July 1988); and Patrick McCarthy, ed., The French Socialists in Power, 1981-86 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987).
67. Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, p. 233. Also Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change"; and Richard Gillespie, The Spanish Socialist Party: A History of Factionalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1989).
68. Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, p. 233. Also Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change"; and Richard Gillespie, The Spanish Socialist Party: A History of Factionalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1989).
69. Kitschelt, The Transformation of European Social Democracy, p. 233. Also Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change"; and Richard Gillespie, The Spanish Socialist Party: A History of Factionalism (London: Oxford University Press, 1989).
70. Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change," p. 278. See also Donald Share, "Spain: Socialists as Neo-Liberals," Socialist Review, 18 (1988).
71. Wilson, "The Sources of Party Change," p. 278. See also Donald Share, "Spain: Socialists as Neo-Liberals," Socialist Review, 18 (1988).
72. The preamble of the party's program states: "Grass-roots democracy means the increased realization of decentralized, direct democracy. We believe that the decision of the grass-roots should always have precedence. . . . We are determined to create a new type of party organization with decentralized structures that are designed according to the principles of grass-roots democracy. . . ." Bundesprogramm 1980 , quoted in Thomas Poguntke, "Basisdemokratie and Political Realities: The German Green Party," in Lawson, ed., How Political Parties Work, p. 4.
73. The preamble of the party's program states: "Grass-roots democracy means the increased realization of decentralized, direct democracy. We believe that the decision of the grass-roots should always have precedence. . . . We are determined to create a new type of party organization with decentralized structures that are designed according to the principles of grass-roots democracy. . . ." Bundesprogramm 1980 , quoted in Thomas Poguntke, "Basisdemokratie and Political Realities: The German Green Party," in Lawson, ed., How Political Parties Work, p. 4.
74. The preamble of the party's program states: "Grass-roots democracy means the increased realization of decentralized, direct democracy. We believe that the decision of the grass-roots should always have precedence. . . . We are determined to create a new type of party organization with decentralized structures that are designed according to the principles of grass-roots democracy. . . ." Bundesprogramm 1980 , quoted in Thomas Poguntke, "Basisdemokratie and Political Realities: The German Green Party," in Lawson, ed., How Political Parties Work, p. 4.
75. Ibid., p. 13.
76. Members of the party executive were given pay raises; Green MPs now have the right to serve out their full terms in parliament; an increasing number of party decisions are taken behind closed doors; and a trend towards professionalized politics is clear.
77. This vote created great controversy within the party; see Der Spiegel, 1 (1996); "Machtkampf der Grunen," Die Welt, Feb. 10, 1996; "Die Grünen spielen wieder Kassandra," die tageszeitung, Feb. 10, 1996; and "Wo ist die Friedensbewegung," die tageszeitung, Jan. 3, 1996.
78. This vote created great controversy within the party; see Der Spiegel, 1 (1996); "Machtkampf der Grunen," Die Welt, Feb. 10, 1996; "Die Grünen spielen wieder Kassandra," die tageszeitung, Feb. 10, 1996; and "Wo ist die Friedensbewegung," die tageszeitung, Jan. 3, 1996.
79. This vote created great controversy within the party; see Der Spiegel, 1 (1996); "Machtkampf der Grunen," Die Welt, Feb. 10, 1996; "Die Grünen spielen wieder Kassandra," die tageszeitung, Feb. 10, 1996; and "Wo ist die Friedensbewegung," die tageszeitung, Jan. 3, 1996.
80. This vote created great controversy within the party; see Der Spiegel, 1 (1996); "Machtkampf der Grunen," Die Welt, Feb. 10, 1996; "Die Grünen spielen wieder Kassandra," die tageszeitung, Feb. 10, 1996; and "Wo ist die Friedensbewegung," die tageszeitung, Jan. 3, 1996.
81. "Wir werden regieren," Der Spiegel, 9 (1995).
82. "Survey Finds Angst Moves Closer to Home," Financial Times, Jan. 17, 1996; "Solidarität statt Ellenbogen," die tageszeitung, Feb. 20, 1996; "Bündnisgrüne drängt es in die Wirtschaft," die tageszeitung, Mar. 4, 1996; and "Werben für einen neuen Grünton," Süddeutsche Zeitung, Mar. 28, 1996.
83. "Survey Finds Angst Moves Closer to Home," Financial Times, Jan. 17, 1996; "Solidarität statt Ellenbogen," die tageszeitung, Feb. 20, 1996; "Bündnisgrüne drängt es in die Wirtschaft," die tageszeitung, Mar. 4, 1996; and "Werben für einen neuen Grünton," Süddeutsche Zeitung, Mar. 28, 1996.
84. "Survey Finds Angst Moves Closer to Home," Financial Times, Jan. 17, 1996; "Solidarität statt Ellenbogen," die tageszeitung, Feb. 20, 1996; "Bündnisgrüne drängt es in die Wirtschaft," die tageszeitung, Mar. 4, 1996; and "Werben für einen neuen Grünton," Süddeutsche Zeitung, Mar. 28, 1996.
85. "Survey Finds Angst Moves Closer to Home," Financial Times, Jan. 17, 1996; "Solidarität statt Ellenbogen," die tageszeitung, Feb. 20, 1996; "Bündnisgrüne drängt es in die Wirtschaft," die tageszeitung, Mar. 4, 1996; and "Werben für einen neuen Grünton," Süddeutsche Zeitung, Mar. 28, 1996.
86. Another important reason for the flight from the SAP towards parties of the left was dissatisfaction with the official pro-EU stance of the SAP. Both the Swedish Environmental Party/The Greens and the Left party strongly oppose Sweden's participation in the EU and have benefitted greatly from the postreferendum anti-Europe backlash. This pattern has been repeated in other European countries.
87. See Ezra N. Suleiman, "Is Democratic Supernationalism a Danger?," in Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Christianne C. Hardy, "Divided Sovereignties: The Europeanization of Domestic Political Organization in Western Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1996).
88. See Ezra N. Suleiman, "Is Democratic Supernationalism a Danger?," in Charles A. Kupchan, ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995); and Christianne C. Hardy, "Divided Sovereignties: The Europeanization of Domestic Political Organization in Western Europe" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1996).
89. Stein Rokkan, "The Structuring of Mass Politics in the Smaller European Democracies: A Developmental Typology," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 10 (1968), 209-10.
90. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading: Addison Wesley, 1979), pp. 76-77.