Changes in media credibility when a predicted disaster doesn't happen

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 797-813

  Major, Ann M ^a   Atwood, L Erwin ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038878878     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400409     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Bernard Berelson and Gary A. Steiner, Human Behavior. An Inventory of Scientific Findings (NY: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1964).
2. Joanne M. Nigg, "Communication and Behavior: Organizational and Individual Responses to Warnings," Working Paper No. 106 (Tempe, AZ: Office of Hazards Studies, School of Public Affairs, Arizona State University, 1985).
3. 3. Ralph H. Turner, Joanne M. Nigg, and Denise Heller Paz, Waiting for Disaster: Earthquake Watch in California (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1986). Although this finding may seem counter-intuitive, magazine articles and books about forthcoming disasters typically provide substantial "evidence" that appears plausible to those unfamiliar with geophysical conditions. For example, predictions that a particular alignment of the planets in the solar system will create gravitational forces resulting in severe earthquakes on the earth may appear plausible given the daily observation of the effects of the moon's gravity on ocean tides. See, for example, John Gribbin and Stephen Plagemann, The Jupiter Effect (New York: Random House, 1974). These predictions frequently are made by psychics.
4. Ralph H. Turner, Joanne M. Nigg, and Denise Heller Paz, Waiting for Disaster: Earthquake Watch in California (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1986). Although this finding may seem counter-intuitive, magazine articles and books about forthcoming disasters typically provide substantial "evidence" that appears plausible to those unfamiliar with geophysical conditions. For example, predictions that a particular alignment of the planets in the solar system will create gravitational forces resulting in severe earthquakes on the earth may appear plausible given the daily observation of the effects of the moon's gravity on ocean tides. See, for example, John Gribbin and Stephen Plagemann, The Jupiter Effect (New York: Random House, 1974). These predictions frequently are made by psychics.
5. Bruce H. Westley and Werner J. Severin, "A Profile of the Daily Newspaper Non-Reader," Journalism Quarterly 41 (winter 1964): 45-50, 156.
6. Albert Gunther and Dominic L. Lasorsa, "Issue Importance and Trust in Mass Media," Journalism Quarterly 63 (winter 1986): 844-48.
7. Albert Gunther, "Attitude Extremity and Trust in Media," Journalism Quarterly 65 (summer 1988): 279-87.
8. Keith Stamm and Ric Dube, "The Relationship of Attitudinal Components to Trust in Media," Communication Research 21 (February 1994): 105-123.
9. L. Erwin Atwood, "The Effects of Incongruity Between Source and Message Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 43 (spring 1966): 90-94; Helen Block Lewis, "Studies in the Principles of Judgments and Attitudes: IV. The Operation of 'Prestige Suggestion'," Journal of Social Psychology 14 (August 1941): 229-56.
10. L. Erwin Atwood, "The Effects of Incongruity Between Source and Message Credibility," Journalism Quarterly 43 (spring 1966): 90-94; Helen Block Lewis, "Studies in the Principles of Judgments and Attitudes: IV. The Operation of 'Prestige Suggestion'," Journal of Social Psychology 14 (August 1941): 229-56.
11. Erica Weintraub Austin and Qingwen Dong, "Source vs. Content Effects on Judgments of News Believability," Journalism Quarterly 71 (winter 1994): 973-83.
12. Ann M. Major, "A Test of Situational Communication Theory: Public Response to the 1990 Browning Earthquake Prediction," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 11 (November 1993): 337-49.
13. Shelley E. Taylor, "Adjustment to Threatening Events: A Theory of Cognitive Adaptation," American Psychologist 38 (November 1983): 1161-1173; Shelley E. Taylor, Positive Illusions: Creative Self-Deception and the Healthy Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1989).
14. Shelley E. Taylor, "Adjustment to Threatening Events: A Theory of Cognitive Adaptation," American Psychologist 38 (November 1983): 1161-1173; Shelley E. Taylor, Positive Illusions: Creative Self-Deception and the Healthy Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1989).
15. Marlin Shipman, Gil Fowler, and Russ Shain, "Whose Fault Was It? An Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Iben Browning's New Madrid Fault Earthquake Prediction," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 11 (November 1993): 379-89.
16. The center director, who later left the university, some years earlier had predicted a devastating earthquake in North Carolina, and had enlisted the aid of a psychic in verifying his prediction. That earthquake also had not performed as scheduled.
17. "Evaluation of the December 2-3, 1990, New Madrid Seismic Zone Prediction." The Ad Hoc Working Group on the December 2-3, 1990, Earthquake Prediction, 18 October 1990.
18. Marian Schwartz, "Repetition and Rated Truth Value of Statements," American Journal of Psychology 95 (fall 1982): 393-407.
19. John E. Farley, Hugh D. Barlow, Marvin S. Finkelstein, and Larry Riley, "Earthquake Hysteria, Before and After: A Survey and Follow-up on Public Response to the Browning Forecast," International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters 11 (November 1993): 305-321.
20. Hazel Markus and R. B. Zajonc, "The Cognitive Perspective in Social Psychology," in Handbook of Social Psychology, vol. 1, 3d ed., ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (NY: Random House, 1985), 137-230.
21. F. T. Bacon, "Credibility of Repeated Statements: Memory for Trivia," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5 (1979): 241-52; Schwartz, "Repetition."
22. F. T. Bacon, "Credibility of Repeated Statements: Memory for Trivia," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5 (1979): 241-52; Schwartz, "Repetition."
23. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, "The Theory of Public Opinion: The Concept of the Spiral of Silence," in Communication Yearbook 14, ed. James A. Anderson (Newbury Park: Sage, 1991), 256-87.
24. Christian S. Crandall and Barbara Greenfield, "Understanding the Conjunction Fallacy: The Conjunction of Effects?" Social Cognition 4 (4, 1986): 408-419; Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, 2d ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1991).
25. Christian S. Crandall and Barbara Greenfield, "Understanding the Conjunction Fallacy: The Conjunction of Effects?" Social Cognition 4 (4, 1986): 408-419; Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, 2d ed. (NY: McGraw-Hill, 1991).
26. Taylor, "Adjustment."
27. Taylor, "Adjustment."
28. Meaning was measured by the personalized risk index (Cronbach's α = .71) and included the following items: "I don't believe an earthquake would really hurt me" (reverse coded). "There is nothing I can do about earthquakes, so I don't try to prepare for that kind of emergency." "The way I look at it, nothing is going to help if there were an earthquake." The response options were (4) strongly agree, (3) agree somewhat, (2) disagree somewhat, (1) strongly disagree. The higher the score, the greater the perceived risk.
29. Taylor, "Adjustment."; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Positive Illusions and Well-Being Revisited: Separating Fact from Fiction," Psychological Bulletin 116 (July 1994): 21-27.
30. Taylor, "Adjustment."; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Positive Illusions and Well-Being Revisited: Separating Fact from Fiction," Psychological Bulletin 116 (July 1994): 21-27.
31. 25. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
32. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
33. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
34. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
35. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
36. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition; Dennis S. Mileti and Colleen Fitzpatrick, The Great Earthquake Experiment: Risk Communication and Public Action (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993); Dennis S. Mileti and Paul W. O'Brien, "Warnings During Disaster: Normalizing Communication Risk," Social Problems 39 (March 1992): 40-57; Shelley E. Taylor and Jonathon D. Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being: A Social Psychological Perspective on Mental Health," Psychological Bulletin 103 (March 1988): 193-210; Shelley E. Taylor, Rebecca L. Collins, Laurie A. Skokan, and Lisa Aspenwall, "Maintaining Positive Illusions in the Face of Negative Information: Getting the Facts Without Letting Them Get to You," Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 8 (summer 1989): 114-129; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
37. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great; L. Erwin Atwood and Ann M. Major, Goodbye, Gweilo: Public Opinion and the 1997 Problem in Hong Kong (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996).
38. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great; L. Erwin Atwood and Ann M. Major, Goodbye, Gweilo: Public Opinion and the 1997 Problem in Hong Kong (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996).
39. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great; L. Erwin Atwood and Ann M. Major, Goodbye, Gweilo: Public Opinion and the 1997 Problem in Hong Kong (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996).
40. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great; L. Erwin Atwood and Ann M. Major, Goodbye, Gweilo: Public Opinion and the 1997 Problem in Hong Kong (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 1996).
41. Jack M. McLeod and Steven R. Chaffee, "The Construction of Social Reality," in The Social Influence Processes, ed. James T. Tedeschi (Chicago: Aldine Atherton Publishing Co. Inc., 1972), 50-99.
42. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, 107.
43. Mastery was measured by four indices. Accurate knowledge (α = .59): "How accurately do you believe scientists can predict when earthquakes will happen? Do you believe that they can be predicted (4) quite accurately, (3) somewhat accurately, (2) not too accurately, or (1) not at all accurately?" "From what you have heard and read the past few months, what does a small earthquake like the one we had last September tell us about the chances of having a major earthquake? Does it tell us that a major earthquake is (1) more likely to happen, (2) less likely to happen, or (3) tells us nothing?" The responses were coded (score=2) to reflect accurate knowledge if respondents reported that a small earthquake "tells us nothing" about the likelihood of a major earthquake and that scientists can predict "not at all accurately." All other responses were coded as inaccurate (score=1). When the variables are summed, a score of "2" indicates no correct answers, "3" indicates one correct answer, and "4" indicates two correct answers. Interpersonal information sources (November α = .74; February α = .82): "How much have you heard about the earthquake that has been/ was predicted? (3) a great deal, (2) quite a bit, (1) nothing at all." The index includes responses to questions asked about frequency of discussions about the prediction with family and friends. The higher the score, the more the individual claimed to have heard about the problem from other people. Media information sources (α = .66). "How much have you read or heard about the earthquake that was predicted? (4) a great deal, (3) some, (2) not much, (1) nothing at all." The index includes responses for newspapers, television, radio, and newsmagazines. The higher the score, the more the individual claimed to have read or heard about the earthquake prediction. Situational mastery (α = .56). αHow prepared do you feel you are in the event of a major earthquake? Are you (4) very well prepared, (3) somewhat prepared, (2) not very well prepared, or (1) not at all prepared?" "If you personally tried to do something to help protect yourself and your family from a major earthquake, do you think your efforts would make (4) a lot of difference, (3) some difference, (2) not much difference, (1) no difference at all?" "Some people are trying to make their homes safer even if it might not make much difference. Have you done anything that might make your home safer if there were a major earthquake?" The responses for the last item were content coded and then dichotomized into (1) did nothing, (2) did something. For the summed responses, the higher the score the more the individual believed he or she had some control over the situation.
44. Taylor and Brown, "Illusions of Well-Being."
45. Taylor, "Adjustment."
46. Dominic L. Lasorsa, "The Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika,'" Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Richard M. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement and the Third Person Effect of Television News Coverage," Communication Research 16 (April 1989): 236-62; Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991):680-88; L. Erwin Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power: The Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 269-81.
47. Dominic L. Lasorsa, "The Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika,'" Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Richard M. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement and the Third Person Effect of Television News Coverage," Communication Research 16 (April 1989): 236-62; Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991):680-88; L. Erwin Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power: The Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 269-81.
48. Dominic L. Lasorsa, "The Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika,'" Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Richard M. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement and the Third Person Effect of Television News Coverage," Communication Research 16 (April 1989): 236-62; Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991):680-88; L. Erwin Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power: The Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 269-81.
49. Dominic L. Lasorsa, "The Real and Perceived Effects of 'Amerika,'" Journalism Quarterly 66 (summer 1989): 373-78, 529; Richard M. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement and the Third Person Effect of Television News Coverage," Communication Research 16 (April 1989): 236-62; Jeremy Cohen and Robert G. Davis, "Third-Person Effects and the Differential Impact in Negative Political Advertising," Journalism Quarterly 68 (winter 1991):680-88; L. Erwin Atwood, "Illusions of Media Power: The Third-Person Effect," Journalism Quarterly 71 (summer 1994): 269-81.
50. Self-enhancing illusions were measured by two indices, perceived influence of media content and perceived influence of what other people said about the problem. Responses to questions about influence are illusory because, for the most part, most people have no way of knowing the extent to which they have been influenced. Media influence (α = .81): "How much do you think the news has influenced your opinion about how important the earthquake is? Has the news had (4) a lot of influence, (3) some influence, (2) not much influence, or (1) none at all?" The question was asked for newspapers, television, and radio. Responses for the three media were summed; the higher the score, the greater the perceived influence. Personal influence (α = .78): "Do you think what you talked about with other people has had any influence on how important you think the earthquake problem is? Do you think those talks had (4) a lot of influence, (3) some influence, (2) not much influence, or (1) none at all?" The question was asked for family, friends, and coworkers. The higher the score, the greater the perceived influence of other people.
51. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Taylor, Collins, Skokan, and Aspenwall, "Maintaining."
52. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Taylor, Collins, Skokan, and Aspenwall, "Maintaining."
53. 35. Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Darrin R. Lehman and Shelley E. Taylor, "Date With an Earthquake: Coping With a Probable Unpredictable Disaster," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 13 (December 1987): 546-55; Jerry M. Burger and Michele L. Palmer, "Changes in and Generalization of Unrealistic Optimism Following Experiences with Stressful Events: Reactions to the 1989 California Earthquake," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (February 1992): 39-43; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
54. Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Darrin R. Lehman and Shelley E. Taylor, "Date With an Earthquake: Coping With a Probable Unpredictable Disaster," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 13 (December 1987): 546-55; Jerry M. Burger and Michele L. Palmer, "Changes in and Generalization of Unrealistic Optimism Following Experiences with Stressful Events: Reactions to the 1989 California Earthquake," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (February 1992): 39-43; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
55. Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Darrin R. Lehman and Shelley E. Taylor, "Date With an Earthquake: Coping With a Probable Unpredictable Disaster," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 13 (December 1987): 546-55; Jerry M. Burger and Michele L. Palmer, "Changes in and Generalization of Unrealistic Optimism Following Experiences with Stressful Events: Reactions to the 1989 California Earthquake," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (February 1992): 39-43; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
56. Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting; Darrin R. Lehman and Shelley E. Taylor, "Date With an Earthquake: Coping With a Probable Unpredictable Disaster," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 13 (December 1987): 546-55; Jerry M. Burger and Michele L. Palmer, "Changes in and Generalization of Unrealistic Optimism Following Experiences with Stressful Events: Reactions to the 1989 California Earthquake," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18 (February 1992): 39-43; Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
57. 36. Gunther and Lasorsa, "Issue Importance"; Gunther, "Attitude Extremity"; Stamm and Dube, "The Relationship."
58. Gunther and Lasorsa, "Issue Importance"; Gunther, "Attitude Extremity"; Stamm and Dube, "The Relationship."
59. Gunther and Lasorsa, "Issue Importance"; Gunther, "Attitude Extremity"; Stamm and Dube, "The Relationship."
60. Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
61. Lehman and Taylor, "Date with."
62. Lehman and Taylor, "Date with."
63. The reasons for loss of respondents from the panel were: (1)28.4% refused to participate in the second interview when called or quit during the interview; (2) 22.1% could not be reached after three callback attempts; (3) 18.4% of the original numbers had been disconnected; and (4) the remaining 31.3 % can be termed "polite refusals" (e.g., the respondent said the call was to the "wrong number," or that the interviewer should "call back later," and then the person could not be reached in subsequent callbacks).
64. A comparison of the proportions of the full November sample and the panel sample responses for the believability of the prediction question are provided respectively: not believable, 12.6% and 13.6%; not very believable, 27.2% and 27.9%; somewhat believable, 50.7% and 49.1%; very believable, 9.5% and 9.4%. The proportions for the perceived importance of the earthquake problem were: not at all important, 8.4% and 6.1%; not very important, 20.4% and 19.0%; somewhat important, 37.4% and 37.3%; very important, 33.7% and 37.6% for the November and panel respondents, respectively.
65. Lehman and Taylor, "Date with."
66. The credibility-loss group was associated negatively with the first function for television credibility and media influence (i.e., self-enhancing illusions) was associated negatively (-.47) with the function; therefore, the credibility-loss group was positively associated with self-enhancing illusions.
67. Turner, Nigg, and Paz, Waiting.
68. Gunther, "Attitude Extremity."
69. L. Erwin Atwood and Keith R. Sanders, "Perception of Information Sources and Likelihood of Split Ticket Voting," Journalism Quarterly 52 (autumn 1975): 421-38.
70. Dandan Gao, "Content Analysis on Earthquake Coverage in Two Local Newspapers" (unpublished report, School of Journalism, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, 6 May 1991).
71. Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
72. Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
73. Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
74. Mileti and Fitzpatrick, The Great.
75. Lehman and Taylor, "Date with."
76. Lehman and Taylor, "Date with."
77. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, 1984.
78. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement"; Cohen and Davis, "Third-Person"; Atwood "Illusions of Media Power."
79. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement"; Cohen and Davis, "Third-Person"; Atwood "Illusions of Media Power."
80. Perloff, "Ego-Involvement"; Cohen and Davis, "Third-Person"; Atwood "Illusions of Media Power."
81. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Taylor, Collins, Skokan, and Aspenwall, "Maintaining."
82. Taylor, "Adjustment"; Taylor, Collins, Skokan, and Aspenwall, "Maintaining."