Prime-time stereotyping on the new television networks

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 859-872

  Eaton, B Carol ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038878872     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909707400413     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of AEJMC, August 1996, Anaheim, CA. The author thanks Dr. Pamela Shoemaker and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.
2. Steve Coe, "CBS Makes Major Midseason Shifts," Broadcasting & Cable 125 (January 1995): 37.
3. Elihu Katz, Jay G. Blumler, and Michael Gurevitch, "Utilization of Mass Communication by the Individual," inThe Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratifications Research, ed. J.G. Blumler and E. Katz (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1974), 19-32.
4. H. Leslie Steeves, "Feminist Theories and Media Studies," Critical Studies in Mass Communication 4 (June 1987): 95-135.
5. Steeves, "Feminist Theories," 100. See also, Lawrence Kohlberg, "A Cognitive Developmental Analysis of Sex-Role Concepts and Attitudes," in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. Eleanor E. Maccoby (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966), 82-173; and Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977).
6. Steeves, "Feminist Theories," 100. See also, Lawrence Kohlberg, "A Cognitive Developmental Analysis of Sex-Role Concepts and Attitudes," in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. Eleanor E. Maccoby (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966), 82-173; and Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977).
7. Steeves, "Feminist Theories," 100. See also, Lawrence Kohlberg, "A Cognitive Developmental Analysis of Sex-Role Concepts and Attitudes," in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. Eleanor E. Maccoby (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966), 82-173; and Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977).
8. Daniel J. Bretl, and Joanne Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Television Commercials: A Recent Content Analysis and Trends Over 15 Years," Sex Roles 18 (May 1988): 595-609.
9. Bretl and Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men."
10. Nancy Signorielli, Douglas McLeod, and Elaine Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcas ting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101. See also, Lois J. Smith, "A Content Analysis of Gender Differences in Children's Advertising," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 323-37; R. Stephen Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis, Sex Roles 26 (March 1992): 197-211; and Lynn T. Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages in Television Commercials: An Update," Sex Roles 21 (December 1989): 715-24.
11. Nancy Signorielli, Douglas McLeod, and Elaine Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcas ting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101. See also, Lois J. Smith, "A Content Analysis of Gender Differences in Children's Advertising," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 323-37; R. Stephen Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis, Sex Roles 26 (March 1992): 197-211; and Lynn T. Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages in Television Commercials: An Update," Sex Roles 21 (December 1989): 715-24.
12. Nancy Signorielli, Douglas McLeod, and Elaine Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcas ting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101. See also, Lois J. Smith, "A Content Analysis of Gender Differences in Children's Advertising," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 323-37; R. Stephen Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis, Sex Roles 26 (March 1992): 197-211; and Lynn T. Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages in Television Commercials: An Update," Sex Roles 21 (December 1989): 715-24.
13. Nancy Signorielli, Douglas McLeod, and Elaine Healy, "Gender Stereotypes in MTV Commercials: The Beat Goes On," Journal of Broadcas ting & Electronic Media 38 (winter 1994): 91-101. See also, Lois J. Smith, "A Content Analysis of Gender Differences in Children's Advertising," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 38 (summer 1994): 323-37; R. Stephen Craig, "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis, Sex Roles 26 (March 1992): 197-211; and Lynn T. Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages in Television Commercials: An Update," Sex Roles 21 (December 1989): 715-24.
14. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy, "Gender Stereotypes."
15. Sydney W. Head, "Content Analysis of Television Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 9 (winter 1954): 175-94. See also, Melvin L. DeFleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (spring 1964): 57-74; Nancy Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 119-24; Joseph Turow, "Advising and Ordering: Daytime, Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 138-41; and Nancy Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo," Sex Roles 21 (September 1989): 341-60.
16. Sydney W. Head, "Content Analysis of Television Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 9 (winter 1954): 175-94. See also, Melvin L. DeFleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (spring 1964): 57-74; Nancy Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 119-24; Joseph Turow, "Advising and Ordering: Daytime, Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 138-41; and Nancy Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo," Sex Roles 21 (September 1989): 341-60.
17. Sydney W. Head, "Content Analysis of Television Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 9 (winter 1954): 175-94. See also, Melvin L. DeFleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (spring 1964): 57-74; Nancy Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 119-24; Joseph Turow, "Advising and Ordering: Daytime, Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 138-41; and Nancy Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo," Sex Roles 21 (September 1989): 341-60.
18. Sydney W. Head, "Content Analysis of Television Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 9 (winter 1954): 175-94. See also, Melvin L. DeFleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (spring 1964): 57-74; Nancy Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 119-24; Joseph Turow, "Advising and Ordering: Daytime, Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 138-41; and Nancy Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo," Sex Roles 21 (September 1989): 341-60.
19. Sydney W. Head, "Content Analysis of Television Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 9 (winter 1954): 175-94. See also, Melvin L. DeFleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly 28 (spring 1964): 57-74; Nancy Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 119-24; Joseph Turow, "Advising and Ordering: Daytime, Prime-Time," Journal of Communication 24 (spring 1974): 138-41; and Nancy Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo," Sex Roles 21 (September 1989): 341-60.
20. Donald M. Davis, "Portrayals of Women in Prime-Time Network Television: Some Demographic Characteristics," Sex Roles 23 (September 1990): 325-32.
21. Smith, "A Content Analysis"; Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy, "Gender Stereotypes"; Craig, "The Effect of Television"; and Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages."
22. Smith, "A Content Analysis"; Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy, "Gender Stereotypes"; Craig, "The Effect of Television"; and Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages."
23. Smith, "A Content Analysis"; Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy, "Gender Stereotypes"; Craig, "The Effect of Television"; and Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages."
24. Smith, "A Content Analysis"; Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy, "Gender Stereotypes"; Craig, "The Effect of Television"; and Lovdal, "Sex Role Messages."
25. These three new television networks are Fox, Paramount, and Warner Brothers.
26. Due to its lack of representation in the market studied for this analysis and significantly smaller number of affiliates nationwide than UPN at the time of data collection, the Warner Brothers Network has been excluded from this study. Due to the noncommercial nature of public television, the PBS affiliate was also excluded in the sample. Because a public television station does not target certain audiences in order to sell commercial advertising, it was deemed inappropriate for inclusion in the study.
27. Promotional advertisements were recorded on consecutive evenings from 11 September to 17 September 1995. Due to the recent or imminent launch of the networks' new television season, this week was deemed particularly germ ane for the study as a time when networks would be heavily promoting their new programs. Because the sample week was generated during the launch of the networks new television season, the stations were heavily promoting every network show. The sampling frame, therefore, represented approximately all returning and new network programs.
28. In order to capture viewers' attention during commercial breaks, promotional advertisements are designed to quickly convey appealing, easily understood information. Research suggests the media's reliance on stereotypes can facilitate attention and instant cognitive processing among viewers (e.g., C. Neil Macrae, Alan B. Milne, and Galen V. Bodenhausen, "Stereotypes as Energy-Saving Devices: A Peek Inside the Cognitive Toolbox," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (January 1994): 37-47.
29. In order to avoid including syndicated and local programs within the sample, TV Guide's Fall Preview issue was used to identify the titles of network programs to be included in the study. "Fall Preview '95," TV Guide 43,16-22 September 1995,12-73.
30. Coding repeat promotional announcements was deemed appropriate for this analysis in order to assess if certain networks heavily promoted more stereotypical programming.
31. Representatives from each network were contacted directly in order to identify specific target audiences. Definitions of network target audiences, therefore, were based on network sources, popular and trade press articles.
32. Pretesting revealed that certain variables typically measured for television programming (e.g., occupational roles) were not applicable to this study of promotional advertisements where certain traits (e.g., character's job) typically were not portrayed.
33. For more detailed information regarding the coding manual and the study's operational definitions, contact the author.
34. For example, experts were asked to rank "very provocative" attire portrayals of women as generally very stereotypical, somewhat stereotypical, neutral, somewhat not stereotypical, and not at all stereotypical. Then they ranked the "somewhat provocative" attire indicator on the same scale, then the "neutral" provocative attire indicator, and so on.
35. The Scott's pi reliability results for each variable were: promo format = .91, promo announcer gender = .92, character role = .83, character gender = .95, character race = .93, character age = .95, character attire = .87, character attractiveness = .67, character physical fitness = .72, character hair color = .82.
36. Although 12% of female ethnic portrayals on FOX were coded in the "other" category, most of these represent cartoon characters (e.g., The Simpsons) of indeterminate race.
37. For a description of the survey of experts, see "Method" section.
38. An overall stereotypical index scale was also computed yielding a reliability coefficient standardized item alpha of .66, which was deemed too low for inclusion in the analysis.
39. Gaye Tuchman, "Introduction: The Symbolic Annihilation of Women by the Mass Media," in Hearth and Home: Images of Women in the Mass Media, ed. Gaye Tuchman, Arlene Kaplan Daniels, and James Benet, (NY: Oxford University Press, 1978), 3-38.
40. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy "Gender Stereotypes"; Davis, "Portrayals of Women"; and Bretl and Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men."
41. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy "Gender Stereotypes"; Davis, "Portrayals of Women"; and Bretl and Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men."
42. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy "Gender Stereotypes"; Davis, "Portrayals of Women"; and Bretl and Cantor, "The Portrayal of Men."
43. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy "Gender Stereotypes"; and Davis, "Portrayals of Women."
44. Signorielli, McLeod, and Healy "Gender Stereotypes"; and Davis, "Portrayals of Women."
45. Head, "Content Analysis"; DeFleur, "Occupational Roles"; Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time"; Turow, "Advising and Ordering"; and Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions."
46. Head, "Content Analysis"; DeFleur, "Occupational Roles"; Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time"; Turow, "Advising and Ordering"; and Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions."
47. Head, "Content Analysis"; DeFleur, "Occupational Roles"; Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time"; Turow, "Advising and Ordering"; and Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions."
48. Head, "Content Analysis"; DeFleur, "Occupational Roles"; Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time"; Turow, "Advising and Ordering"; and Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions."
49. Head, "Content Analysis"; DeFleur, "Occupational Roles"; Tedesco, "Patterns in Prime-Time"; Turow, "Advising and Ordering"; and Signorielli, "Television and Conceptions."
50. Pamela J. Shoemaker and Stephen D. Reese, Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content (White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers, 1996).