Carnival and citizenship: The politics of carnival culture in the Prussian Rhineland, 1823-1848

Journal of Social History

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 1997, Pages 873-904

  Brophy, James M ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0038877471     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/30.4.873     Document Type: Review

References (261)

1. Original handwritten copy, 2/4 February 1825, Nachlass Wittgenstein, Historisches Archiv der Stadt Köln (hereafter HAStK), Best. 1123, nr. 16, "Coelner Carnival II 1824-1835." My thanks to Frau Dorothea von Wittgenstein for permission to consult the papers of Heinrich von Wittgenstein. The stanza here is the revised version, written two days later. For a more complete analysis of the poem see Michael Müller, "Karneval als Politikum: Zum Verhältnis zwischen Preussen und dem Rheinland im 19. Jahrhundert," in Von der Entstehung der Provinzen bis zur Reichsgründung, vol. 1, Kurt Düwell and Wolfgang Köllmann eds. (Wuppertal, 1982), 206.
2. Wolfram Siemann, Deutschlands Ruhe, Sicherheit und Ordnung: Die Anfänge der politischen Polizei 1806-1866 (Tübingen, 1986); Alf Lüdtke, Police and State in Prussia, 1815-1850 (Cambridge, 1989).
3. Wolfram Siemann, Deutschlands Ruhe, Sicherheit und Ordnung: Die Anfänge der politischen Polizei 1806-1866 (Tübingen, 1986); Alf Lüdtke, Police and State in Prussia, 1815-1850 (Cambridge, 1989).
4. Anton Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 155 ff; Wilhelm Walter, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 9ff; Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben in Köln: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Soziologie der Stadt (Cologne, 1965), 93ff.; Peter Fuchs and M. L. Schwering, Kölner Karneval: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Fastnacht, vol. 1 (Cologne, 1972), 25-43; for reference to the lower quality of carnival in 1800, ibid, 50.
5. Anton Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 155 ff; Wilhelm Walter, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 9ff; Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben in Köln: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Soziologie der Stadt (Cologne, 1965), 93ff.; Peter Fuchs and M. L. Schwering, Kölner Karneval: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Fastnacht, vol. 1 (Cologne, 1972), 25-43; for reference to the lower quality of carnival in 1800, ibid, 50.
6. Anton Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 155 ff; Wilhelm Walter, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 9ff; Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben in Köln: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Soziologie der Stadt (Cologne, 1965), 93ff.; Peter Fuchs and M. L. Schwering, Kölner Karneval: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Fastnacht, vol. 1 (Cologne, 1972), 25-43; for reference to the lower quality of carnival in 1800, ibid, 50.
7. Anton Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 155 ff; Wilhelm Walter, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 9ff; Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben in Köln: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Soziologie der Stadt (Cologne, 1965), 93ff.; Peter Fuchs and M. L. Schwering, Kölner Karneval: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Fastnacht, vol. 1 (Cologne, 1972), 25-43; for reference to the lower quality of carnival in 1800, ibid, 50.
8. Anton Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 155 ff; Wilhelm Walter, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 9ff; Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben in Köln: Ein Beitrag zur historischen Soziologie der Stadt (Cologne, 1965), 93ff.; Peter Fuchs and M. L. Schwering, Kölner Karneval: Zur Kulturgeschichte der Fastnacht, vol. 1 (Cologne, 1972), 25-43; for reference to the lower quality of carnival in 1800, ibid, 50.
9. Anthony J. La Vopa, "Conceiving a Public: Ideas and Society in Eighteenth-Century Europe," Journal of Modern History 64 (March 1992): 79.
10. See, for example, the essays by Keith Baker, Craig Calhoun (introduction), Geoff Eley, Mary P. Ryan, and Michael Schudson in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992); and William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen: Journalists and the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary France (1815-1850)," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1546-70; Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988); for an excellent reworking of gender in the public sphere, see Belinda Davis, "Reconsidering Habermas, Gender, and the Public Sphere: The Case of Wilhelmine Germany," in Geoff Eley, ed., Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1871-1918 (Ann Arbor, 1995), 395-426. Habermas addresses these issues in his "Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990," Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit: Untersuchung zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1990), 11-50.
11. See, for example, the essays by Keith Baker, Craig Calhoun (introduction), Geoff Eley, Mary P. Ryan, and Michael Schudson in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992); and William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen: Journalists and the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary France (1815-1850)," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1546-70; Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988); for an excellent reworking of gender in the public sphere, see Belinda Davis, "Reconsidering Habermas, Gender, and the Public Sphere: The Case of Wilhelmine Germany," in Geoff Eley, ed., Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1871-1918 (Ann Arbor, 1995), 395-426. Habermas addresses these issues in his "Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990," Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit: Untersuchung zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1990), 11-50.
12. See, for example, the essays by Keith Baker, Craig Calhoun (introduction), Geoff Eley, Mary P. Ryan, and Michael Schudson in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992); and William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen: Journalists and the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary France (1815-1850)," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1546-70; Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988); for an excellent reworking of gender in the public sphere, see Belinda Davis, "Reconsidering Habermas, Gender, and the Public Sphere: The Case of Wilhelmine Germany," in Geoff Eley, ed., Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1871-1918 (Ann Arbor, 1995), 395-426. Habermas addresses these issues in his "Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990," Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit: Untersuchung zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1990), 11-50.
13. See, for example, the essays by Keith Baker, Craig Calhoun (introduction), Geoff Eley, Mary P. Ryan, and Michael Schudson in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992); and William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen: Journalists and the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary France (1815-1850)," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1546-70; Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988); for an excellent reworking of gender in the public sphere, see Belinda Davis, "Reconsidering Habermas, Gender, and the Public Sphere: The Case of Wilhelmine Germany," in Geoff Eley, ed., Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1871-1918 (Ann Arbor, 1995), 395-426. Habermas addresses these issues in his "Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990," Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit: Untersuchung zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1990), 11-50.
14. See, for example, the essays by Keith Baker, Craig Calhoun (introduction), Geoff Eley, Mary P. Ryan, and Michael Schudson in Craig Calhoun, ed., Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA, 1992); and William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen: Journalists and the Public Sphere in Postrevolutionary France (1815-1850)," American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1546-70; Joan B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of French Revolution (Ithaca, 1988); for an excellent reworking of gender in the public sphere, see Belinda Davis, "Reconsidering Habermas, Gender, and the Public Sphere: The Case of Wilhelmine Germany," in Geoff Eley, ed., Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1871-1918 (Ann Arbor, 1995), 395-426. Habermas addresses these issues in his "Vorwort zur Neuauflage 1990," Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit: Untersuchung zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Frankfurt, 1990), 11-50.
15. "Book History, the State of Play: An Interview with Robert Darnton," SHARP News (Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing), Summer 1994, 3.
16. I am grateful to Harold E. Mah for his comments on this point.
17. The public sphere as an intellectual construct invokes all-encompassing universality, but such singularity is from a social-historical perspective too rigid and abstract to incorporate the varying discourses circulating in the public realm. Andreas Gestrich has, for example, argued that the public sphere had ramified into several spheres by the start of the eighteenth century. See Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 237.
18. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
19. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
20. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
21. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
22. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
23. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
24. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
25. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
26. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
27. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
28. Jürgen Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger and Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA, 1989), pp. 71-73. The explosion of table societies (Tischgesellschaften) and literary societies and clubs - what Habermas calls the literarische Öffentlichkeit - has established itself as a theme in German historiography. See Otto Dann, ed., Lesegesellschaften und bürgerliche Emanzipation: Ein europäischer Vergleich (Munich, 1981); Rudolf Engelsing, Der Bürger als Leser: Lesergeschichte in Deutschland, 1500-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974); Franklin Kopitzsch, ed., Aufklärung, Absolutismus und Bürgertum in Deutschland (Munich, 1976); idem, "Die Aufklärung in Deutschland: Zu ihren Leistungen, Grenzen und Wirkungen," Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 23 (1983): 1-21. Equally well established is the study of early political organizations in the Vormärz. See Dieter Dowe, Aktion und Organisation: Arbeiterbewegung, sozialistische und kommunistische Bewegung in der preussischen Bewegung in der preussischen Rheinprovinz 1820-1852 (Hannover, 1970); Otto Dann, Vereinswesen und bürgerliche Gesellschaft (Cologne, 1984); idem, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung in Deutschland," in Ulrich Engelhardt et al., eds., Soziale Bewegung und politische Verfassung: Beiträge zur Geschichte der modernen Welt (Stuttgart, 1976), 197-232; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847): Bedeutung und Funktion der Turner- und Sängervereine für die deutsche Nationalbewegung (Munich, 1984); Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland im späten 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert," in Gesellschaft, Kultur, und Theorie (Göttingen, 1976); Jonathan Sperber, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848-1849 (Princeton, 1991). Given the numerous restrictions of the late absolutist state, the continued constraints under Napoleonic occupation, and the economic, political, and cultural diversity of the German Confederation, the sites and fragmented discourses in the public sphere need fuller articulation.
29. David Blackbourn, "The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie: Reappraising German History in the Nineteenth Century," in David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany (New York, 1984); see too Eley's key contribution in this volume, "The British Model and the German Road: Rethinking the Course of German History before 1914." Although not always apparent in German historiographical accounts, these two essays launched the re-evaluation of the German middle classes in the last ten years.
30. Habermas, Structural Transformation, 18.
31. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
32. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
33. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
34. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
35. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
36. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
37. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
38. La Vopa notes that "historians have found his [Habermas's] concept of 'representative publicness' especially useful; but there has been little attention to how this element . . . fits into the larger structure of his argument." "Conceiving a Public," 79. For dicussions of social space (and its implications for political culture) see: Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space (Oxford, 1991); Pierre Bourdieu, "Social Space and the Genesis of 'Classes,' " in Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA, 1991); Mona Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Hilda Kuper, "The Language of Sites in the Politics of Space," American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 411-25; Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986); Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York, 1992); Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish (New York, 1979).
39. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
40. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
41. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
42. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
43. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
44. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
45. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
46. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal
47. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
48. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
49. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
50. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
51. David Cannadine, "The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: The British Monarchy and the 'Invention of Tradition', c. 1820-1977," and Eric Hobsbawm, "Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, 1870-1914," in Eric Hobsbawn and Terence Ranger eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983); K. Möckl, ed., Hof und Hofgesellschaft in den deutschen Staaten im 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhundert (Boppard am Rhein, 1990); David E. Barclay, "Ritual, Ceremonial, and the 'Invention' of a Monarchical Tradition in Nineteenth-Century Prussia," in European Monarchy: Its Evolution and Practice from Roman Antiquity to Modern Time, Heinz Duchhardt et. al. eds., (Stuttgart, 1992); Barclay, "Denkmal und Revolutionsfurcht," Potsdam - Brandenburg - Preussen: Beiträge der Landesgeschichtlichen Vereinigung zur Tausendjahrfeier der Stadt Potsdam (Sonderdruck aus dem Jahrbuch für brandenburgische Landesgeschichte, Bd. 44), ed. Wolfgang Neugebauer (Potsdam, 1993); Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995); George L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Cornell, 1977); Jonathan Sperber, "Festivals of National Unity in the German Revolution of 1848-49," Past and Present 136 (1992): 114-38; Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984); Dieter Düding, Peter Friedman, Paul Münch, eds., Öffentliche Festkultur: Politische Feste in Deutschland von der Aufklärung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Reinbek, 1988); Andreas Gestrich, Absolutismus und Öffentlichkeit: Politische Kommunikation in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1994), 32; Lynn Abrams, Workers' Culture in Imperial Germany: Leizure and Recreation in the Rhineland and Westphalia (New York, 1992); David I. Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power (New Haven, 1988); Klaus Tenfelde, "Mining Festivals in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History 12 (1978): 377-412.
52. David E. Barclay, Frederick William IV and the Prussian Monarchy, 1840-1861 (Oxford, 1995), 10.
53. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
54. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
55. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
56. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
57. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
58. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
59. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
60. Whereas German historiography treats popular culture largely as anecdotal marginalia, other literatures have shown the usefulness of contextualizing popular forms of cultures into larger discussions. See, for example, Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street: London Street Culture, 'Industrial Literacy,' and the Emergence of Mass Culture in Victorian England," Nineteenth-Century Contexts 18 (1995): 321-347; John Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III (Cambridge, 1976); idem, "Theater and Counter-Theater in Georgian Politics: The Mock Elections at Garrat," Radical History Review 22 (1979-80): 7-40; Edward P. Thompson, "Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture," Journal of Social History 7 (1974): 382-405; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, 1975), chaps. 4 & 6; Maurice Agulhon, La Républic au Village (Paris, 1969); Sean Wilentz, "Artisan Republican Festivals and the Rise of Class Conflict," in Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael H. Frisch and Daniel J. Walkowitz eds. (Urbana, 1983), 37-77; and Howard Johnson, "Slave Life and Leisure in Nassau, Bahamas, 1783-1838," Slavery and Abolition 16 (1995): 45-64. For an important example of the absence of integrating popular forms of politics into larger master narratives, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler's magisterial treatment of the 1815-48 period in his Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte. Vol. II, Von der Reformära bis zur industriellen und politischen 'Deutschen Doppelrevolution' (Munich, 1987).
61. Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, vol. 1, 113-15; "Satzungen der Olympischen Gesellschaft," February 1811, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 2, pp. 1-11; Hubert Ennen, Die Olympische Gesellschaft zu Köln. Ein Beitrag zur Kölner Literaturgeschichte der Neuzeit (Wurzburg, 1880). The impact of the Olympic Society on Cologne politics is a good example on how the literary public sphere created and affected a political public sphere. The carnival society was originally named the "Festordnende Comité" and later named itself the Grosse Karnevals-Gesellschaft.
62. Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, vol. 1, 113-15; "Satzungen der Olympischen Gesellschaft," February 1811, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 2, pp. 1-11; Hubert Ennen, Die Olympische Gesellschaft zu Köln. Ein Beitrag zur Kölner Literaturgeschichte der Neuzeit (Wurzburg, 1880). The impact of the Olympic Society on Cologne politics is a good example on how the literary public sphere created and affected a political public sphere. The carnival society was originally named the "Festordnende Comité" and later named itself the Grosse Karnevals-Gesellschaft.
63. Joseph Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, vol. 1, 113-15; "Satzungen der Olympischen Gesellschaft," February 1811, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 2, pp. 1-11; Hubert Ennen, Die Olympische Gesellschaft zu Köln. Ein Beitrag zur Kölner Literaturgeschichte der Neuzeit (Wurzburg, 1880). The impact of the Olympic Society on Cologne politics is a good example on how the literary public sphere created and affected a political public sphere. The carnival society was originally named the "Festordnende Comité" and later named itself the Grosse Karnevals-Gesellschaft.
64. Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 115.
65. Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 110-12.
66. The Kappenfahrt was instituted in 1829 to alleviate the restrictions on promenading on the Corso (Hohestrasse) by the Prussian government. For a description of carnival's format, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 117-24; the contemporary description in the 25 March 1832 Rhein-Blüthen, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, is also important for mention of the theatrical performances and Sunday's small parade, the Kappenfahrt. For carnival theater see, too, Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carneval: Wie er war, ist und sein wird (Cologne, 1839), 7, who mentions the most prominent troupes: "Poststation," "Bannerrath," "Theater zu Krähwinckel." Unfortunately, Cologne has no historian of street shows such as Richard D. Alticks, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA, 1978). For a popular historical account of Tünnes and Schäl, Cologne's most famous puppet characters, and their connection to carnival, see Wolfgang Oelsner and Rainer Rudolf, Karneval ohne Maske (Cologne, 1987), 31-46.
67. The Kappenfahrt was instituted in 1829 to alleviate the restrictions on promenading on the Corso (Hohestrasse) by the Prussian government. For a description of carnival's format, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 117-24; the contemporary description in the 25 March 1832 Rhein-Blüthen, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, is also important for mention of the theatrical performances and Sunday's small parade, the Kappenfahrt. For carnival theater see, too, Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carneval: Wie er war, ist und sein wird (Cologne, 1839), 7, who mentions the most prominent troupes: "Poststation," "Bannerrath," "Theater zu Krähwinckel." Unfortunately, Cologne has no historian of street shows such as Richard D. Alticks, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA, 1978). For a popular historical account of Tünnes and Schäl, Cologne's most famous puppet characters, and their connection to carnival, see Wolfgang Oelsner and Rainer Rudolf, Karneval ohne Maske (Cologne, 1987), 31-46.
68. The Kappenfahrt was instituted in 1829 to alleviate the restrictions on promenading on the Corso (Hohestrasse) by the Prussian government. For a description of carnival's format, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 117-24; the contemporary description in the 25 March 1832 Rhein-Blüthen, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, is also important for mention of the theatrical performances and Sunday's small parade, the Kappenfahrt. For carnival theater see, too, Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carneval: Wie er war, ist und sein wird (Cologne, 1839), 7, who mentions the most prominent troupes: "Poststation," "Bannerrath," "Theater zu Krähwinckel." Unfortunately, Cologne has no historian of street shows such as Richard D. Alticks, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA, 1978). For a popular historical account of Tünnes and Schäl, Cologne's most famous puppet characters, and their connection to carnival, see Wolfgang Oelsner and Rainer Rudolf, Karneval ohne Maske (Cologne, 1987), 31-46.
69. The Kappenfahrt was instituted in 1829 to alleviate the restrictions on promenading on the Corso (Hohestrasse) by the Prussian government. For a description of carnival's format, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 117-24; the contemporary description in the 25 March 1832 Rhein-Blüthen, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, is also important for mention of the theatrical performances and Sunday's small parade, the Kappenfahrt. For carnival theater see, too, Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carneval: Wie er war, ist und sein wird (Cologne, 1839), 7, who mentions the most prominent troupes: "Poststation," "Bannerrath," "Theater zu Krähwinckel." Unfortunately, Cologne has no historian of street shows such as Richard D. Alticks, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA, 1978). For a popular historical account of Tünnes and Schäl, Cologne's most famous puppet characters, and their connection to carnival, see Wolfgang Oelsner and Rainer Rudolf, Karneval ohne Maske (Cologne, 1987), 31-46.
70. The Kappenfahrt was instituted in 1829 to alleviate the restrictions on promenading on the Corso (Hohestrasse) by the Prussian government. For a description of carnival's format, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 117-24; the contemporary description in the 25 March 1832 Rhein-Blüthen, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, is also important for mention of the theatrical performances and Sunday's small parade, the Kappenfahrt. For carnival theater see, too, Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carneval: Wie er war, ist und sein wird (Cologne, 1839), 7, who mentions the most prominent troupes: "Poststation," "Bannerrath," "Theater zu Krähwinckel." Unfortunately, Cologne has no historian of street shows such as Richard D. Alticks, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA, 1978). For a popular historical account of Tünnes and Schäl, Cologne's most famous puppet characters, and their connection to carnival, see Wolfgang Oelsner and Rainer Rudolf, Karneval ohne Maske (Cologne, 1987), 31-46.
71. Nachlass Johann Peter Jakob Fuchs, Chronik und Darstellungen (hereafter C. u. D.), HAStK, nr. 215-217, passim.
72. Rudolf Schenda estimated the percentage of readers in German society to be 40 percent in 1830: Volk ohne Buch: Studien zur Soziagsechichte der populären Lesestoffe 1770-1910 (Frankfurt, 1970), 444; for the problem of discerning readers from merely literate social groups in Vormärz Berlin, see Mary Lee Townsend, Forbidden Laughter: Popular Humor and the Limits of Repression in Nineteenth-Century Prussia (Ann Arbor, 1992), 70ff. The question of how illiterate groups participated and affected political discourse is still largely unanswered.
73. Rudolf Schenda estimated the percentage of readers in German society to be 40 percent in 1830: Volk ohne Buch: Studien zur Soziagsechichte der populären Lesestoffe 1770-1910 (Frankfurt, 1970), 444; for the problem of discerning readers from merely literate social groups in Vormärz Berlin, see Mary Lee Townsend, Forbidden Laughter: Popular Humor and the Limits of Repression in Nineteenth-Century Prussia (Ann Arbor, 1992), 70ff. The question of how illiterate groups participated and affected political discourse is still largely unanswered.
74. See, for example, Douglas A. Reid, "Interpreting the Festive Calendar: Wakes and Fairs as Carnivals," in Robert D. Storch, ed., Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1982); Robert W. Malcolmsen, Popular Recreations in English Society, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1973), 89-157; Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Quest for Control, 1830-1885 (London, 1978).
75. See, for example, Douglas A. Reid, "Interpreting the Festive Calendar: Wakes and Fairs as Carnivals," in Robert D. Storch, ed., Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1982); Robert W. Malcolmsen, Popular Recreations in English Society, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1973), 89-157; Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Quest for Control, 1830-1885 (London, 1978).
76. See, for example, Douglas A. Reid, "Interpreting the Festive Calendar: Wakes and Fairs as Carnivals," in Robert D. Storch, ed., Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century England (London, 1982); Robert W. Malcolmsen, Popular Recreations in English Society, 1700-1850 (Cambridge, 1973), 89-157; Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England: Rational Recreation and the Quest for Control, 1830-1885 (London, 1978).
77. Tony Bennett, "The Exhibitionary Complex," New Formations 4 (1988): 91; see also Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London, 1986), 42.
78. Tony Bennett, "The Exhibitionary Complex," New Formations 4 (1988): 91; see also Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London, 1986), 42.
79. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karneval, pp. 54ff.; Elga Böhm, "Matthias Joseph de Noël (1782-1849)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, Vol. 7 (Cologne, 1977): 109-31; Hasso von Wedel, "Heinrich von Wittgenstein (1797-1869)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, vol. 8 (Cologne, 1980): 205-23.
80. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karneval, pp. 54ff.; Elga Böhm, "Matthias Joseph de Noël (1782-1849)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, Vol. 7 (Cologne, 1977): 109-31; Hasso von Wedel, "Heinrich von Wittgenstein (1797-1869)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, vol. 8 (Cologne, 1980): 205-23.
81. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karneval, pp. 54ff.; Elga Böhm, "Matthias Joseph de Noël (1782-1849)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, Vol. 7 (Cologne, 1977): 109-31; Hasso von Wedel, "Heinrich von Wittgenstein (1797-1869)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder, vol. 8 (Cologne, 1980): 205-23.
82. For members of the council and the committees, meetings began on 11/11 before every season, thus offering addition weight to the eleven image. Carnivalists noted, too, that the city's coat of arms also had eleven flames and the number of virgins who saved Cologne (in the lore surrounding Saint Ursula) was 11,000.
83. Stoll, Kölns Carneval, 22.
84. Elaine Glovka Spencer, "Regimenting Revelry: Rhenish Carnival in the Early Nineteenth Century," Central European History 28 (1995): 461.
85. HAStK, C. u. D., nr. 215, p. 137. According to Anton Fahne, people could also visit on a one-time basis for the cost of buying a songbook and a fool's cap. Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 174. Fuchs, the patrician city chronicler, noted that "all estates visited" the general assembly, but the high membership fee (an average craftsmen earned 100 thalers per annum) and the tone of the meetings tell otherwise.
86. HAStK, C. u. D., nr. 215, p. 137. According to Anton Fahne, people could also visit on a one-time basis for the cost of buying a songbook and a fool's cap. Fahne, Der Carneval mit Rücksicht auf verwandte Erscheinungen: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen und Sitten-Geschichte (Cologne, 1854; rpt. 1972), 174. Fuchs, the patrician city chronicler, noted that "all estates visited" the general assembly, but the high membership fee (an average craftsmen earned 100 thalers per annum) and the tone of the meetings tell otherwise.
87. Given the prolonged season of the modern carnival and the similarity of its organizational structure with other bourgeois societies, the interpretation of carnival as a ritual of role reversal and inversion, as a "world turned upside down," is not appropriate. Following models offered by Le Roy Ladurie and Kinser, it is more accurate to view the Rhenish form as a masquerade: "a ritual which exaggerates everyday behavior rather than inverting it." Sam Kinser, Carnival, American Style: Mardi Gras at New Orleans and Mobile (Chicago, 1990), 325, n. 1; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York, 1979), 301-302; see also Edmund Leach, Rethinking Anthropology (London, 1961), and Roger D. Abrahams and Richard Baumann, "Ranges of Festival Behavior," in The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society, Barbara A. Babcock ed. (Ithaca, 1978), 193-208.
88. Given the prolonged season of the modern carnival and the similarity of its organizational structure with other bourgeois societies, the interpretation of carnival as a ritual of role reversal and inversion, as a "world turned upside down," is not appropriate. Following models offered by Le Roy Ladurie and Kinser, it is more accurate to view the Rhenish form as a masquerade: "a ritual which exaggerates everyday behavior rather than inverting it." Sam Kinser, Carnival, American Style: Mardi Gras at New Orleans and Mobile (Chicago, 1990), 325, n. 1; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York, 1979), 301-302; see also Edmund Leach, Rethinking Anthropology (London, 1961), and Roger D. Abrahams and Richard Baumann, "Ranges of Festival Behavior," in The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society, Barbara A. Babcock ed. (Ithaca, 1978), 193-208.
89. Given the prolonged season of the modern carnival and the similarity of its organizational structure with other bourgeois societies, the interpretation of carnival as a ritual of role reversal and inversion, as a "world turned upside down," is not appropriate. Following models offered by Le Roy Ladurie and Kinser, it is more accurate to view the Rhenish form as a masquerade: "a ritual which exaggerates everyday behavior rather than inverting it." Sam Kinser, Carnival, American Style: Mardi Gras at New Orleans and Mobile (Chicago, 1990), 325, n. 1; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York, 1979), 301-302; see also Edmund Leach, Rethinking Anthropology (London, 1961), and Roger D. Abrahams and Richard Baumann, "Ranges of Festival Behavior," in The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society, Barbara A. Babcock ed. (Ithaca, 1978), 193-208.
90. Given the prolonged season of the modern carnival and the similarity of its organizational structure with other bourgeois societies, the interpretation of carnival as a ritual of role reversal and inversion, as a "world turned upside down," is not appropriate. Following models offered by Le Roy Ladurie and Kinser, it is more accurate to view the Rhenish form as a masquerade: "a ritual which exaggerates everyday behavior rather than inverting it." Sam Kinser, Carnival, American Style: Mardi Gras at New Orleans and Mobile (Chicago, 1990), 325, n. 1; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York, 1979), 301-302; see also Edmund Leach, Rethinking Anthropology (London, 1961), and Roger D. Abrahams and Richard Baumann, "Ranges of Festival Behavior," in The Reversible World: Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society, Barbara A. Babcock ed. (Ithaca, 1978), 193-208.
91. Anton Fahne estimates that sittings could number over a thousand people. Carneval, 175.
92. For the number of 800, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, I, 125. Fahne estimated meetings to have over 1000 members. Der Carneval, 175.
93. For the number of 800, see Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, I, 125. Fahne estimated meetings to have over 1000 members. Der Carneval, 175.
94. Fahne, Carneval, 172-75.
95. Habermas, Structural Transformation, 27.
96. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
97. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
98. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
99. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
100. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
101. This has been partially corrected by Elaine Glovka Spencer's article, "Regimenting Revelry" Jonathan Sperber also briefly included carnival societies in his Rhineland Radicals, 99-101; and in his article, "Echoes of the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-1849," Central European History 22 (1989): 207-09. For central works on bourgeois voluntary associations, see Thomas Nipperdey, "Verein als soziale Struktur in Deutschland"; Otto Dann, "Die Anfänge politischer Vereinsbildung"; Dieter Düding, Organisierter gesellschaftlicher Nationalismus in Deutschland (1808-1847).
102. Habermas quoting early documents of the Deutsche Gesellschaften, Structural Transformation, 34.
103. Kölnisches Stadtmuseum (hereafter KSM), Graphische Sammlung (hereafter GS), Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1826, 1a-m, nr. 1. Significantly this flier is written in the Kölsch dialect: "Däh Ungerschaid des Standes däh is gehovven, De Freud spazehret frei."
104. Kölnisches Stadtmuseum (hereafter KSM), Graphische Sammlung (hereafter GS), Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1826, 1a-m, nr. 1. Significantly this flier is written in the Kölsch dialect: "Däh Ungerschaid des Standes däh is gehovven, De Freud spazehret frei."
105. Fahne, Carneval, 173.
106. For early announcements of Sitzungen see KSM, GS, Karneval Theater 1823-34, 1827/1.
107. Dietz-Rüdiger Moser, Fasching-Fastnacht-Karneval. Das Fest der verkehrten Welt (Graz, 1986), 285-86.
108. For the best systematic treatment of Rhenish humor, see Heinrich Lützeler, Philosophie des Kölner Humors (Cologne, 1954) and Kölner Humor in der Geschichte (Cologne, 1960), both of which have been reissued in one volume as Rheinischer Humor: Nicht Nur für Rheinländer (Hanau/Main, 1988). One can also hear Lützeler's "Philosophie des Kölner Humors" on the West Deutsche Rundfunk CD "Der Streit der frühen Jahre. Die Kölner Mittwochgespräche, 1950-1956" (Cologne, 1993). I thank Eberhard Illner for his insights into this difficult issue.
109. For the best systematic treatment of Rhenish humor, see Heinrich Lützeler, Philosophie des Kölner Humors (Cologne, 1954) and Kölner Humor in der Geschichte (Cologne, 1960), both of which have been reissued in one volume as Rheinischer Humor: Nicht Nur für Rheinländer (Hanau/Main, 1988). One can also hear Lützeler's "Philosophie des Kölner Humors" on the West Deutsche Rundfunk CD "Der Streit der frühen Jahre. Die Kölner Mittwochgespräche, 1950-1956" (Cologne, 1993). I thank Eberhard Illner for his insights into this difficult issue.
110. For the best systematic treatment of Rhenish humor, see Heinrich Lützeler, Philosophie des Kölner Humors (Cologne, 1954) and Kölner Humor in der Geschichte (Cologne, 1960), both of which have been reissued in one volume as Rheinischer Humor: Nicht Nur für Rheinländer (Hanau/Main, 1988). One can also hear Lützeler's "Philosophie des Kölner Humors" on the West Deutsche Rundfunk CD "Der Streit der frühen Jahre. Die Kölner Mittwochgespräche, 1950-1956" (Cologne, 1993). I thank Eberhard Illner for his insights into this difficult issue.
111. Fahne, Carneval, 174. According to Fahne, the committee of literary work edited both "official and oppositional newspapers."
112. For a brief survey of Cologne newspapers from the eighteenth century to the 1840s, see Leonard Ennen, "Die Zeitungspresse in der Reichstadt Köln," Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein 36 (1881): 61-81. For a good discussion of newspapers in Vomärz, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II (Munich, 1987), 526-32.
113. For a brief survey of Cologne newspapers from the eighteenth century to the 1840s, see Leonard Ennen, "Die Zeitungspresse in der Reichstadt Köln," Annalen des historischen Vereins für den Niederrhein 36 (1881): 61-81. For a good discussion of newspapers in Vomärz, see Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II (Munich, 1987), 526-32.
114. See HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 1, for the near-complete run of the Offizielle Karnevals-Zeitung and Karnevals-Zeitung for the year 1827.
115. For the critique of carnival's status of Volksfest, see Karnevals-Zeitung, Nr. 4, 17 January 1827, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 1; for the accusations of carnival as a reflection of "Nur ein Verein der Gebildeten," see nr. 10, 5 February 1827. Michael Euler-Schmidt also examines the Volksfest debate in the carnival newspaper, albeit with a different emphasis. Kölner Maskenzüge 1823-1914 (Cologne, 1991), 44-46.
116. For the critique of carnival's status of Volksfest, see Karnevals-Zeitung, Nr. 4, 17 January 1827, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 1; for the accusations of carnival as a reflection of "Nur ein Verein der Gebildeten," see nr. 10, 5 February 1827. Michael Euler-Schmidt also examines the Volksfest debate in the carnival newspaper, albeit with a different emphasis. Kölner Maskenzüge 1823-1914 (Cologne, 1991), 44-46.
117. Fahne, Carneval, 199-201, offers samplings of journalism that ran into trouble with the censors.
118. See, for example, "Publikandum," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1825/3.
119. "Producten-Fabrik in Köln," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1831-35, 1832/6,7,9; "Das Pantoffel-Regiment," Wurf Zettel 1836-37, 1836/6,7,8.
120. "Producten-Fabrik in Köln," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1831-35, 1832/6,7,9; "Das Pantoffel-Regiment," Wurf Zettel 1836-37, 1836/6,7,8.
121. See, for example, the poster from 10 February 1847, KSM, GS, Karneval Theater 1835-70, 1847/2.
122. KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel, 1838-39, 1839/2,3,4; 1839/5,6,7; 1839/8,9,10; 1839/12a & 12b; Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1840/5,6,7,8; 1841/9,10,11.
123. KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel, 1838-39, 1839/2,3,4; 1839/5,6,7; 1839/8,9,10; 1839/12a & 12b; Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1840/5,6,7,8; 1841/9,10,11.
124. KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel, 1838-39, 1839/2,3,4; 1839/5,6,7; 1839/8,9,10; 1839/12a & 12b; Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1840/5,6,7,8; 1841/9,10,11.
125. See the key supplied in the "Schrift-Proben des typographischen Instituts von Franz Xaver Schlosser am Rhein 1837," HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 15.
126. For issues of censorship see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1826 1a-m, nr. 3 & Mappe 1826/R.W., nr. 2; for the issue of "oppression" see the many puns on the theme of printing. See, for example, KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 5; For critiques of stock jobbing see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 2.
127. For issues of censorship see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1826 1a-m, nr. 3 & Mappe 1826/R.W., nr. 2; for the issue of "oppression" see the many puns on the theme of printing. See, for example, KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 5; For critiques of stock jobbing see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 2.
128. For issues of censorship see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1826 1a-m, nr. 3 & Mappe 1826/R.W., nr. 2; for the issue of "oppression" see the many puns on the theme of printing. See, for example, KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 5; For critiques of stock jobbing see KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826 i-m, nr. 2.
129. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
130. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
131. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
132. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
133. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
134. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
135. "Gedruckt und zu haben in der Dampfbuchdruckerei des Mannes aus dem Mond," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, 1826i-m, nr. 2; "Agentur des Mässigkeit-Vereins aus Botany Bay," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1838/9 &. 10; "Das Aktien Ehe-Paar" Wurf Zettel 1839/8,9,10; "Poetisch-Lustiger Vortrag," Wurf Zettel 1838-39, 1839/12a & 12b; "Thee or Opium, that is the question," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/1,2,3; "Tout Comme Chez Nous," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/9,10,11; "Zwei schöne nagelneue Lieder," Wurf Zettel 1840-41, 1841/10,13.
136. HAStK, C. u D., nr. 215, 1825-29, p. 119.
137. Carnivalists' attempts to manufacture honor and status through symbols and words offers an additional example of the public sphere constituting something more than critical-rational debate. For other examples, see William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen" Ute Frevert, Ehrenmänner: Das Duell in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Munich, 1991); Robert A. Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France (New York, 1993).
138. Carnivalists' attempts to manufacture honor and status through symbols and words offers an additional example of the public sphere constituting something more than critical-rational debate. For other examples, see William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen" Ute Frevert, Ehrenmänner: Das Duell in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Munich, 1991); Robert A. Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France (New York, 1993).
139. Carnivalists' attempts to manufacture honor and status through symbols and words offers an additional example of the public sphere constituting something more than critical-rational debate. For other examples, see William M. Reddy, "Condottiere of the Pen" Ute Frevert, Ehrenmänner: Das Duell in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (Munich, 1991); Robert A. Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France (New York, 1993).
140. The first restored carnival of 1823 centered on this theme of the prince-hero of carnival's accession to his throne. For an excellent overview of the annual themes of the masked parades, see the second section of Michael Euler-Schmidt, Kolner Maskenzüge: 1823-1914 (Koln, 1991), 90-158.
141. Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 32; see also Beatrix Alexander, Der Kölner Bauer (Cologne, 1987), 89-95.
142. Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 32; see also Beatrix Alexander, Der Kölner Bauer (Cologne, 1987), 89-95.
143. See Christoph S. Schier, Das grosse Kölnische Carnevalsfest von 1824 (Cologne, 1824) for the dramatized narrative of carnival week.
144. As the carnival poet Schier wrote, in Cologne one joined "Altes und Neues: Persönlichkeiten, welche seit Jahren des Volkes Theilnahme und Liebe gewonnen . . . Repräsentanten verschiedener Nationen, fabelhafte oder wirklich dagewesener Helden, Ritter, und Landesknechten, Herren und Damen verschiedenen Kalibers, Personen aus damals berühmt gewordenen Dramen und Opern." Quoted in Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 32.
145. See the 1825 Program, KSM, GS, Kasten K, 1825; "Unterwerfungsakt," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, E 1825/2 (BH 132426).
146. See the 1825 Program, KSM, GS, Kasten K, 1825; "Unterwerfungsakt," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-27, E 1825/2 (BH 132426).
147. Noeggerath to Wittgenstein, 27 January 1824, HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Karneval 1827.
148. See "Verzeichnis der gestern und vorgestern in Köln angekommenen Fremden und deren Wohnung," 31 January 1825, which alongside humorous fictitious names also provided a serious list of prominent guests who arrived for the festivities: HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16.
149. Other referents of imperial traditions, which were mainstays of the Monday parade, were "die Helligen Mägde und Knechte" and the "Gecken-Bähnchen." Klersch, Volkstum und Volksleben, 120.
150. Josef Müller's Rheinisches Wörterbuch (Bonn, 1928) cites 1733 as the first documented use of "Kölle Alaaf," vol. 1, 106.
151. This research confirms the importance of stressing urban political culture in the stimulating collection of essays, Lothar Gall, ed., Stadt und Bürgertum im Übergang von der traditionalen zur modernen Gesellschaft (Historische Zeitschrift Beiheft, nr. 16), (Munich, 1983).
152. Because the Rhineland's bourgeoisie was considered to be among the most "developed" in Prussia, its economic role in industrializing Germany is always the profiled feature, thus effacing cultural aspects which have no part of discussions on modernization. See, for example, the discussion of Rhenish businessmen's "forced" and "accelerated" industrialization in Rudolf Boch, Grenzenloses Wachstum? Das rheinische Wirtschaftsbürgertum und seine Industrialisierungsdebatte 1814-1857 (Göttingen, 1991); Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II, 175ff., is characteristically outstanding, but here too in this synoptic interpretation there is no genuine place for culture in accounting for the formation of political publics. On this point see Peter Jelavich, "Poststrukturalismus and Sozialgeschichte - aus amerikanischer Perspektive," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 21 (1995): 259-289.
153. Because the Rhineland's bourgeoisie was considered to be among the most "developed" in Prussia, its economic role in industrializing Germany is always the profiled feature, thus effacing cultural aspects which have no part of discussions on modernization. See, for example, the discussion of Rhenish businessmen's "forced" and "accelerated" industrialization in Rudolf Boch, Grenzenloses Wachstum? Das rheinische Wirtschaftsbürgertum und seine Industrialisierungsdebatte 1814-1857 (Göttingen, 1991); Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II, 175ff., is characteristically outstanding, but here too in this synoptic interpretation there is no genuine place for culture in accounting for the formation of political publics. On this point see Peter Jelavich, "Poststrukturalismus and Sozialgeschichte - aus amerikanischer Perspektive," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 21 (1995): 259-289.
154. Because the Rhineland's bourgeoisie was considered to be among the most "developed" in Prussia, its economic role in industrializing Germany is always the profiled feature, thus effacing cultural aspects which have no part of discussions on modernization. See, for example, the discussion of Rhenish businessmen's "forced" and "accelerated" industrialization in Rudolf Boch, Grenzenloses Wachstum? Das rheinische Wirtschaftsbürgertum und seine Industrialisierungsdebatte 1814-1857 (Göttingen, 1991); Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Gesellschaftsgeschichte, II, 175ff., is characteristically outstanding, but here too in this synoptic interpretation there is no genuine place for culture in accounting for the formation of political publics. On this point see Peter Jelavich, "Poststrukturalismus and Sozialgeschichte - aus amerikanischer Perspektive," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 21 (1995): 259-289.
155. See the important discussion on Heimat and local identity by Cecilia Applegate, A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat (Berkeley, 1990).
156. Geoff Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, 289-339; see too Eley's illuminating discussion on the public sphere's role in the creation of political publics in "Edward Thompson, Social History and Political Culture: The Making of a Working-Class Public, 1780-1850," in Harvey J. Kaye and Keith MCClelland, eds., E.P. Thompson: Critical Perspectives (Philadelphia, 1990), 12-49.
157. Geoff Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures: Placing Habermas in the Nineteenth Century," in Habermas and the Public Sphere, 289-339; see too Eley's illuminating discussion on the public sphere's role in the creation of political publics in "Edward Thompson, Social History and Political Culture: The Making of a Working-Class Public, 1780-1850," in Harvey J. Kaye and Keith MCClelland, eds., E.P. Thompson: Critical Perspectives (Philadelphia, 1990), 12-49.
158. Charlotte Tacke, Denkmal im sozialen Raum: Nationale Symbole in Deutschland und Frankreich Im 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995), 23, 75.
159. "Faschings-Lieder 1825," HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16. "Nichts erregt wohl mehr die Theilnahme der Gesammtheit, nichts wirkt wohl mehr so mächtig auf Geist und Gemüth, als solche Volksfeste, wo die zertreuten und sich entfremdeten Glieder des Ganzen durch das Band der allgemeinen Freude wieder vereinigt und enger verknüpft werden. Solche Feste greifen tief in den Character des Volkes . . . und die Volksthümlichkeit auf eine Weise ordnen und leiten, wodurch Zweck und Einsicht in das ganze gebracht wird."
160. Bourgeois claims to cleaning up street culture are not peculiar to Germany. See Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street" Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power, 38-48; Christine Stansell, "Women, Children and the Uses of the Street: Class and Gender Conflict in New York City, 1850-1860," Feminist Studies 8 (1982): 308-35.
161. Bourgeois claims to cleaning up street culture are not peculiar to Germany. See Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street" Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power, 38-48; Christine Stansell, "Women, Children and the Uses of the Street: Class and Gender Conflict in New York City, 1850-1860," Feminist Studies 8 (1982): 308-35.
162. Bourgeois claims to cleaning up street culture are not peculiar to Germany. See Edward Jacobs, "Bloods in the Street" Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power, 38-48; Christine Stansell, "Women, Children and the Uses of the Street: Class and Gender Conflict in New York City, 1850-1860," Feminist Studies 8 (1982): 308-35.
163. Edmund Stoll, Kölns Carnival, 28-30. The first section of the quote is Stoll quoting Christian Schier's 1824 carnival almanac.
164. "Abschiedslied der Waisen von ihrem Hanswurste," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1806-1827, 1827/8,9. This verse echoes Goethe's more famous stanza from the 1825 poem: Löblich wird ein tolles Streben, Wenn es kurz ist und mit Sinn; Dass noch Heiterkeit im Leben, Gibt besonnenem Rausch Gewinn.
165. Johanna Schopenhauer used the term Divertissementchen in her diary. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karneval, vol. 1, 48-49.
166. See Eberhard Illner's historical contextualization of this choir in the exhibition catalogue, "Das Gold der Kehlen": 150 Jahre Kölner Männer-Gesang-Verein (Cologne, 1992).
167. This element of carnival became fully developed in the 1820s, but the tradition began in 1794 under French administration. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karneval, 46.
168. See paragraph 5 of the police regulations on masking, Kölnische Zeitung, 1 March 1832.
169. Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 33. Oppenheim's participation in carnival should be seen in the larger context of Jewish emancipation in the Vormärz. As a a bourgeois "patriotic" Jew who held no electoral rights in formal politics, Oppenheim most likely used carnival as an informal means to further his social-economic contacts in the city.
170. Fahne, Carneval, 218-20; Euler Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 90-103.
171. Fahne, Carneval, 218-20; Euler Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 90-103.
172. For an example of Latin usage, see the protocol of the "Historiograph," 7 January 1831, HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Karneval 1831; for parade figures, see KSM, GS, Karnevalszüge 1824/25/28.
173. For an example of Latin usage, see the protocol of the "Historiograph," 7 January 1831, HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Karneval 1831; for parade figures, see KSM, GS, Karnevalszüge 1824/25/28.
174. HAStk, C. u. D., nr. 216, 1830-36, for the number of fifty wagons for the 1832 parade, p. 155; and nr. 217, 1837-40, for the carriage number and the comment on the rented traps during the 1838 carnival, p. 3.
175. Klersch succinctly summarized, "Die geschlossenen grossen Maskenzüge brachten die alten Banden allmählich zum Verschwinden," Volkstum und Volksleben, 121.
176. See KSM, GS, Karnevalszüge 1824/25/28, for visual documentation of parade floats, costumes, and spatial organization of groups and characters. In these public representations of the city estates, one sees Rangordnung and hierarchy confirmed.
177. Robert Darnton, "A Bourgeois Puts His World in Order: The City as a Text," in The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York, 1985), 107-43.
178. KSM, GS, Karnevalszüge 1824/25/28, nr. 105.
179. HAStK, C. u. D, nr. 216, 1830-36. See 1835, 1.
180. Carnival's sociopolitical dimension confirms Jürgen Kocka's observation: "What is startling if we compare France with central and eastern Europe is the close proximity and interconnection between aristocratic and bourgeois elements in this life of Notables." "The Middle Classes in Europe," Journal of Modern History 67 (1995): 790.
181. Nor should this refashioning of corporate society into a plutocratic hierarchy be perceived as backwards or categorically different from western Europe. The limited franchises and the notable politics in France and England suggest as many similarities as differencies.
182. Fuchs and Schwering, Kölner Karnveal, vol. 1, 50.
183. Friedrich Wilhelm to Staatsminister Schuckmann, 22 November 1827, Landes Hauptarchiv Koblenz (hereafter LHK), Best. 403, nr. 2616, 27.
184. Oberpräsident Ingersleben to Staatsminister Schuckmann, 17 Dec. 1827, LHK, Best. 403, nr. 2616, 31-33.
185. LHK, Rep. 403, nrs. 2616, 7061, 2159; and Rep. 441, nr. 23984 offer ample evidence of this dicussion.
186. Reference to this decree of 29 March 1828 is noted in Police Commissioner Struensee's letter to Ingersleben, 16 January 1830, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 103.
187. See file "Betreffend die Karnevals Lustbarkeiten im Kreise Zell 1929-1834," LHK, Rep. 441, nr. 17188, 1-239 for the contretemps between town residents and the government, and 219-33 for the legal proceeding against twenty-two residents caught masquerading; for similar incidents in the town Ahrweiler, see Rep. 441, nr. 23984, unpag.
188. Landrat Hauer to Regierungspräsident (Düsseldorf), 11 July 1834, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 332-37.
189. See Friedrich Wilhelm to Staatsminister von Brenn, 17 April 1834, 281. and the various reports of the Regierungspräsident to the Oberpräsident in 1834, LHK, Rep. 2616, 217-391.
190. For complete list, see Oberpräsident Bodelschwingh to Innenminister, 8 October 1834, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616. Andernach, Düren, Jülich, Duisberg, Essen, and Mühlheim a.d. Ruhr were just some of the larger towns denied the privilege. The towns' attempts to demonstrate their tradition of carnival in 1834 produced voluminous dossiers. See, for example, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 257ff.
191. King Friedrich Wilhelm to Innenminister Schuckmann, 20 March 1828, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 45.
192. Oberbürgermeister zu Coblenz to Regierung in Coblenz, 22 August 1828, LHK, Rep. 441, nr. 23984, unpag.; Ingersleben to Coblenzer Carnival Committee, 19 Dez. 1828, LHK, Rep. 2616, 67. See 73, 75 for further problems in 1829 in Coblenz.
193. Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 210. See Polizei-Inspector Struensee report to Ingersleben, 21 November 1829, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 87-89.
194. HAStK, C. u. D., nr. 215, 1829, 3; nr. 216, 6, 9.
195. Brenn, Ministry of Interior, to Oberpräsident von Pestel, 16 April 1834, LHAK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 271-274.
196. Friedrich Wilhelm to Staatsminister Rochow, 19 January 1835, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 451; see also letter of Oberpräsident Bodelschwingh to Coblenz Regierung, 31 Jan 1835, LHK, Rep. 441, nr. 23984, unpag.
197. See letter from Oberpräsident Bodelschwingh to Regierungspräsident Ruppenthal in Cologne for connections between carnival and the "Erzbishöfliche Angelegenheit," 12 February 1838, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 485; for figures on military, Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 212.
198. See letter from Oberpräsident Bodelschwingh to Regierungspräsident Ruppenthal in Cologne for connections between carnival and the "Erzbishöfliche Angelegenheit," 12 February 1838, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 2616, 485; for figures on military, Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 212.
199. Fuchs made frequent reference to Prince Friedrich's presence. See C. u. D., HAStK, nr. 215, 1825-29, 119 (1827) for first reference; for remark concerning Prince Friedrich's 4 a.m. departure from ball see, nr. 216, 1830-36, 7 (1833).
200. See the letters of 24 January and 9 & 19 February 1830 from the Prince to Heinrich von Wittgenstein, HAStK, Rep. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Karneval 1830.
201. Prince Friedrich of Prussia to Wittgenstein, 2 February 1835, HAStK, Rep. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Carnival 1835.
202. This sentence has drawn on David E. Barclay's discussion of Friedrich Wilhlem IV's use of ceremony to "modernize" monarchical tradition, which utilizes Clifford Geertz's essay, "Center, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power," in Sean Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics Since the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1985), 14, 16. See Barclay's Frederick William IV, 52-55, 105-19; here, 106.
203. This sentence has drawn on David E. Barclay's discussion of Friedrich Wilhlem IV's use of ceremony to "modernize" monarchical tradition, which utilizes Clifford Geertz's essay, "Center, Kings, and Charisma: Reflections on the Symbolics of Power," in Sean Wilentz, ed., Rites of Power: Symbolism, Ritual, and Politics Since the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1985), 14, 16. See Barclay's Frederick William IV, 52-55, 105-19; here, 106.
204. For the role of humor in the popular and political culture of Vormärz, see Mary Lee Townsend, Forbidden Laughter: Popular Humor and the Limits of Repression in Nineteenth-Century Prussia (Ann Arbor, 1992).
205. See, for example, the description of the 1829 Hohenzollern's Festival of the White Rose, an early "orchestrated exercise in royal self-affirmation and in the public representation of monarchical values," in David E. Barclay, Frederick William IV, 2; for the more important forms of public representation of monarchical authority under Friedrich Wilhlem IV in the 1840s, see 49-55, 105-119.
206. "Der Kölner Karneval im Jahre 1832," Rhein-Blüthen (Beilage zum Kölnischen Correspondenten), 18 March 1832, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 2, 132.
207. W. Walther, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 66; also quoted in Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 53.
208. W. Walther, Der Karneval in Köln von den ältesten Zeiten bis zum Jahre 1873 (Cologne, 1873), 66; also quoted in Euler-Schmidt, Maskenzüge, 53.
209. Undated draft of letter from Wittgenstein to Engels and Engels to Wittgenstein, 18 February 1833, HAStK, Best. 1123, nr. 16, Mappe Karneval 1833.
210. Euler-Schmidt quoting the 1834 "Programm der diesjährigen Festlichkeiten," Maskenzüge, 53.
211. See Marcel Seyppel, "Franz Raveaux (1810-1851)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder (Gesellschaft für rheinische Geschichtskunde, Bd. 11) (Cologne, 1988), 125-148; according to Seyppel, an authority on Rhenish radical activity in the 1840s, Raveaux did not return to the Rhineland until 1835, but these documents suggest otherwise. Jonathan Sperber notes that Raveaux only got involved after 1843, but it is clear that he was involved in carnival and the general assembly during the 1830s. Rhineland Radicals, 99, n. 18.
212. See Marcel Seyppel, "Franz Raveaux (1810-1851)," in Rheinische Lebensbilder (Gesellschaft für rheinische Geschichtskunde, Bd. 11) (Cologne, 1988), 125-148; according to Seyppel, an authority on Rhenish radical activity in the 1840s, Raveaux did not return to the Rhineland until 1835, but these documents suggest otherwise. Jonathan Sperber notes that Raveaux only got involved after 1843, but it is clear that he was involved in carnival and the general assembly during the 1830s. Rhineland Radicals, 99, n. 18.
213. HAStK, C. u. D., nr. 218, 1841-1844, 2 (1841): "Leute, die dem Handwerkerstande angehören und drei Thaler aufbringen können, finden sich jetzt dort ein, und nehmen lebhaften Antheil."
214. Both claimed the right to inherit all previous carnival property and the right to organize the masked ball at Gurzenich, whose profits funded the parade and made possible the charity proceeds. The clubs eventualy agreed on the principle of working together on a common parade and ball but would donate proceeds separately to the orphanage charity.
215. HAStk, C. u. D., nr. 218, 1841-44, 3 (1842).
216. See, for example, the flyers "Mittheilungen aus den Beobachtungen eines für Satanen un Lucifer reisenden literarischen Teufels," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1844/19,20; "Vormundschaftlicher Drei-Männer Verein zum Wohle der Menschheit," & "Mit hoher Hanwurstlicher Bewilligung har der Unterzeichnente mit dem heutigen Tage ein allgemeines Commissions- und Vermiethungs-Bureau," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1845/1,2,3; see, too, "Das Raths-Collegium" of "Nebel Bilder. Lebensgemälde in vier Portionen," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 60; and "Echte Magie! Neueste Schwarze Kunst!" KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1846-50, 1847/1,2,3.
217. See, for example, the flyers "Mittheilungen aus den Beobachtungen eines für Satanen un Lucifer reisenden literarischen Teufels," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1844/19,20; "Vormundschaftlicher Drei-Männer Verein zum Wohle der Menschheit," & "Mit hoher Hanwurstlicher Bewilligung har der Unterzeichnente mit dem heutigen Tage ein allgemeines Commissions- und Vermiethungs-Bureau," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1845/1,2,3; see, too, "Das Raths-Collegium" of "Nebel Bilder. Lebensgemälde in vier Portionen," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 60; and "Echte Magie! Neueste Schwarze Kunst!" KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1846-50, 1847/1,2,3.
218. See, for example, the flyers "Mittheilungen aus den Beobachtungen eines für Satanen un Lucifer reisenden literarischen Teufels," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1844/19,20; "Vormundschaftlicher Drei-Männer Verein zum Wohle der Menschheit," & "Mit hoher Hanwurstlicher Bewilligung har der Unterzeichnente mit dem heutigen Tage ein allgemeines Commissions- und Vermiethungs-Bureau," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1845/1,2,3; see, too, "Das Raths-Collegium" of "Nebel Bilder. Lebensgemälde in vier Portionen," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 60; and "Echte Magie! Neueste Schwarze Kunst!" KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1846-50, 1847/1,2,3.
219. See, for example, the flyers "Mittheilungen aus den Beobachtungen eines für Satanen un Lucifer reisenden literarischen Teufels," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1844/19,20; "Vormundschaftlicher Drei-Männer Verein zum Wohle der Menschheit," & "Mit hoher Hanwurstlicher Bewilligung har der Unterzeichnente mit dem heutigen Tage ein allgemeines Commissions- und Vermiethungs-Bureau," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1844-45, 1845/1,2,3; see, too, "Das Raths-Collegium" of "Nebel Bilder. Lebensgemälde in vier Portionen," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 60; and "Echte Magie! Neueste Schwarze Kunst!" KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1846-50, 1847/1,2,3.
220. "Die Spekulanten," (1845), HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9, 8, p. 57.
221. "Fest-Programm der Allgemeinen Carnivals-Gesellschaft," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,9, p. 21.
222. Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 99.
223. "Fest-Programm der Allgemeinen Carnivals-Gesellschaft," 1845, HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,9, p. 21.
224. Regierungspräsident Gerlach to Innenminister Graf v. Arnim, 22 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 115.
225. See "Die Winzer," KSM, GS, Wurf Zettel 1846-1850, 1847/9,10 and 1845 program of Allgemeine Carnivalgesellschaft.
226. See the "Hanswürstlicher Wurst-Veredlungs-Verein" (1845) HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 58 for its references to Zensur-Würste, Berliner Kotz-Würste, Kölnische Knack-Würste, Dombau-Wurst, Junggesellen-Wurst, and Communitische Wurst. See, too, the Lukrezia Bude's flyer, "Dramatische Sing- und equilibritische Spielhalle," with its "Der communistische Thee (gehörntes Preisstück)," HAStK, Best. 1078, Nr. 9,8, p. 61.
227. See the "Hanswürstlicher Wurst-Veredlungs-Verein" (1845) HAStK, Best. 1078, nr. 9,8, p. 58 for its references to Zensur-Würste, Berliner Kotz-Würste, Kölnische Knack-Würste, Dombau-Wurst, Junggesellen-Wurst, and Communitische Wurst. See, too, the Lukrezia Bude's flyer, "Dramatische Sing- und equilibritische Spielhalle," with its "Der communistische Thee (gehörntes Preisstück)," HAStK, Best. 1078, Nr. 9,8, p. 61.
228. "Ein Kölner an seine MitBürger," (November 1846) Fuchs, HAStK, C. u. D., nr. 219-227, unpag.
229. Regierungspräsident Gerlach to Innenminister von Arnim, 22 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 115-22; Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 215; Wilhelm Capitain, Geschichte der Karnevals-Gesellschaft 'Die Bemoosten' und des Vallendarer Karnevals (Cologne, 1930), 11-15.
230. Regierungspräsident Gerlach to Innenminister von Arnim, 22 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 115-22; Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 215; Wilhelm Capitain, Geschichte der Karnevals-Gesellschaft 'Die Bemoosten' und des Vallendarer Karnevals (Cologne, 1930), 11-15.
231. Regierungspräsident Gerlach to Innenminister von Arnim, 22 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 115-22; Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 215; Wilhelm Capitain, Geschichte der Karnevals-Gesellschaft 'Die Bemoosten' und des Vallendarer Karnevals (Cologne, 1930), 11-15.
232. Regierungs-Präsident Speigel to Oberpräsident, 24 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 126-27; Landrat Frentz to Spiegel, 2 Feb. 1844, LHK, Rep. 7061, 31.
233. Regierungs-Präsident Speigel to Oberpräsident, 24 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 126-27; Landrat Frentz to Spiegel, 2 Feb. 1844, LHK, Rep. 7061, 31.
234. Jonathan Sperber, "Echoes on the French Revolution in the Rhineland, 1830-49," Central European History 22 (1989): 208.
235. For list of honorary members see LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 349; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 100.
236. For list of honorary members see LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 349; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 100.
237. Regierungspräsident von Speigel an Innenminister Graf v. Arnim, 8 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 49-53; Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 213.
238. Regierungspräsident von Speigel an Innenminister Graf v. Arnim, 8 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 49-53; Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 213.
239. Regierungspräsident Gerlach to Innenminister Graf v. Arnim, 22 February 1844, Rep. 403, Nr. 7061, 117. The government settled on threatening the steamship company with withdrawing its operating license, but this too was ineffective.
240. Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 213.
241. See, for example, the printed song, "Hanswoosch - emanzipeet," which hailed Hanswurst's coming of majority age and his emancipation from paternalism. LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 177-78.
242. For the government's surveillance of the Nonnenwerth outing, see LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 141-209; for the remark by the carnivalist August Weyer on the flags, 165.
243. For the government's surveillance of the Nonnenwerth outing, see LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 141-209; for the remark by the carnivalist August Weyer on the flags, 165.
244. Oberpräsident to Innenministerium, 15 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 69.
245. Inneninister Bodelschwingh to Oberpräsident Eichmann, 18 January 1847, LHK, nr. 7061, p. 299; and an intercepted letter describing a sitting of Raveaux's club in January 1847, 301-02.
246. Inneninister Bodelschwingh to Oberpräsident Eichmann, 18 January 1847, LHK, nr. 7061, p. 299; and an intercepted letter describing a sitting of Raveaux's club in January 1847, 301-02.
247. Marcel Seyppel quoting Regierungspräsident Raumer, "Franz Raveaux (1810-1851)," Rheinische Lebensbilder, Vol 11 (Cologne, 1988), 131.
248. Report of Police Inspector Brendamour, 11 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 67.
249. Circular of 1 January 1846, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 266-67.
250. Landrat Frentz (Düsseldorf) to Regierungs-Präsident Spiegel, 2 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 30; also quoted in Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 101.
251. Landrat Frentz (Düsseldorf) to Regierungs-Präsident Spiegel, 2 February 1844, LHK, Rep. 403, nr. 7061, 30; also quoted in Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 101.
252. Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 214.
253. See Marcel Seyppel, Die demokratische Gesellschaft in Köln 1848/49: Städtische Gesellschaft und Parteientstehung während der bürgerlichen Revolution (Cologne, 1991).
254. In this respect I differ with Jonathan Sperber, who writes in Rhineland Radicals, "The satire itself was not necessarily a political danger, since it was confined to a time of the year when forbidden things were allowed because they were forbidden at any other time" (100). As demonstrated, carnival activity was not restricted to traditional mardi-gras days; and although Raveaux's club "boasted of its activities" in preserving public order to Prussian authorities, one should hardly accept this statement at face value.
255. Müller, "Karneval als Politikum," 216.
256. On the question of passive resistance and the oppositional Abgeordnentenfeste (deputy festivals), see Thomas Parent, 'Passiver Widerstand' im preussischen Verfassungskonflikt: Die Kölner Abgeordnetenfeste (Cologne, 1982).
257. Jürgen Habermas, "The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique 1 (1974): 54; and Structural Transformation, 168. In the NGC article Habermas uses the February Revolution (1848) as a marker; in his book, the July revolution. I have used the latter.
258. Jürgen Habermas, "The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique 1 (1974): 54; and Structural Transformation, 168. In the NGC article Habermas uses the February Revolution (1848) as a marker; in his book, the July revolution. I have used the latter.
259. My thanks to Carla Hesse for suggesting this possible avenue for research.
260. It is outside the bounds of this to discuss whether the Rhenish carnival confirms Habermas's belief that the commercialization and commodification of the public sphere eroded genuine privacy which underpins the ideal public sphere. Although the commercialization of Rhenish carnival began in the 1840s, it only earnestly asserted itself in the 1850s and 1860s - and flourished after 1870. Detailed research on the post-1848 decades is needed. On this issue, I think Habermas's model is not so much misconceived as in need of modification to move beyond the one-dimensional understanding of how a commercialized public sphere affects political culture.
261. David Blackbourn, "The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie."