The Soviet Union and the 1956 crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and new findings

Journal of Contemporary History

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 163-214

  Kramer, Mark ^a,b  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Harvard Project on Cold War Studies

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038853573     PISSN: 00220094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/002200949803300201     Document Type: Article

References (169)

1. 'Zayavlenie rukovoditelei Bolgarii, Vengrii, GDR, Pol'shi, i Sovetskogo Soyuza' and 'Zayavlenie Sovetskogo Soyuza', both in Pravda (Moscow), 5 December 1989, 2
2. F. Luk'yanov, 'Vengriya privetsvuet zayavlenie Moskvy', Izvestiya (Moscow), 24 October 1991, 4
3. See, for example, General A.D. Lizichev, 'Oktyabr' i Leninskoe uchenie o zashchite revolyutsii', Kommunist (Moscow), 3 (February 1987), 96
4. Admiral A.I. Sorokin (ed.), Sovetskie vooruzhenye sily na strazhe mira i sotsializma (Moscow 1988), 254
5. V.V. Semin (ed.), Voennopoliticheskoe sotrudnichestvo sotsialisticheskikh stran (Moscow 1988), esp. 127-41, 181-220
6. and the interview with General V.N. Lobov in 'I tol'ko pravda ko dvoru', Izvestiya (Moscow), 8 May 1989, 1, 3
7. Colonel I.A. Klimov, 'KPSS ob ukreplenii edinstva i boevogo sotrudnichestva vooruzhenykh sil sotsialisticheskikh stran', Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal (Moscow), 5 (May 1987), 80
8. V.F. Khalipov, Voennaya politika KPSS (Moscow 1988), esp. 256-7
9. General P.I. Lashchenko, 'Vengriya, 1956 god', Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal (Moscow), 9 (September 1989), 42-50
10. Budapest Domestic Service, 28 January 1989
11. 'TsK KPSS: Ob izuchenii arkhivov TsK KPSS, kasayushchikhsya sobytii 1956 g. v Vengrii', Report No. 06/2-513 (Secret), from R. Fedorov and P. Laptev, deputy heads of the CPSU CC International Department and CPSU CC General Department, respectively, 23 November 1990, in Tsentr Khraneniya Sovremennoi Dokumentatsii (TsKhSD), Fond (F.) 89, Opis' (Op.) 11, Delo (D.) 23, List (L.) 1. The memorandum warned that the 'new Hungarian authorities' were 'clearly intending to use this question [i.e. the 1956 invasion] as a means of pressure against us'. For the article praising the invasion, see Lt.-Col. Jozsef Forigy, 'O kontrrevolyutsii v Vengrii 1956 goda', Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal (Moscow), 8 (August 1990), 39-46. This article was explicitly intended to counter the 'traitorous revisionists' in Hungary who had claimed that the events of 1956 were a 'popular uprising' and who in 1989-90 were carrying out a second 'counterrevolution'. The article was unstinting in its denunciation of the 'traitors' led by Imre Nagy and of the 'new counter-revolutionaries in our midst today who regard themselves as the heirs of 1956'. The chief editor of the Soviet journal, Major-General Viktor Filatov, endorsed the Hungarian author's arguments and warmly recommended the article to his readers. Filatov added that 'upon reading the article, one cannot help but notice features of that [earlier] counter-revolutionary period that are similar to the changes occurring in the East European countries at the present time'
12. Jelcin-dosszie Szoviet dokumentumok 1956 rol. (Budapest 1993)
13. and Hianyzo Lapok: 1956 tortenetebol: Dokumentumok a volt SZKP KP Leveltarabol (Budapest 1993)
14. 'O sobytiyakh 1956 goda v Vengrii', Diplomaticheskii vestnik (Moscow), 19-20 (15-31 October 1992), 52-6
15. 'Vengriya, aprel'-oktyabr' 1956 goda: Informatsiya Yu. V. Andropova, A.I. Mikoyana i M.A. Suslova iz Budapeshta'; 'Vengriya, oktyabr'-noyabr' 1956 goda: Iz arkhiva TsK KPSS'; and 'Vengriya, noyabr' 1956-avgust 1957 g.', all in Istoricheskii arkhiv (Moscow), 4, 5 and 6 (1993), 103-42, 132-60, and 131-44, respectively
16. See, in particular, the segment of Khrushchev's memoirs published in 'Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva', Voprosy istorii (Moscow), 4 (1995), 68-84. Another extremely useful account is available in the memoir by the former Yugoslav ambassador in Moscow, Veljko Micunovic, Moscow Diary, trans. by David Floyd (Garden City, NY 1980), 136. Because of his fluency in Russian and close ties with Tito, Micunovic regularly had direct contacts with Khrushchev and other senior figures. Less reliable, but potentially illuminating (if used with caution), are the relevant portions of the memoir by the police chief in Budapest during the revolution, Sandor Kopacsi, Au nom de la classe ouvrière (Paris 1979), which is also available in English translation under the same title. Kopacsi ended up siding with the insurgents and was arrested in November 1956. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in June 1958, but was granted amnesty in 1963. In 1974 he was permitted to emigrate to Canada
17. A few well-connected Russians have had privileged access to Malin's notes from the Presidium meetings dealing with Khrushchev's secret speech at the 20th CPSU Congress, but these notes have not been made more widely available. See V.P. Naumov, 'K istorii sekretnogo doklada N.S. Khrushcheva na XX s'ezde KPSS', Novaya i noveishaya istoriya (Moscow), 4 (July-August 1996), 147-68
18. Vladimir Naumov,' "Utverdit" dokladchikom tovarishcha', Moskovskie Novosti, 5 (4-11 February 1996), 34
19. Aleksei Bogomolov, 'K 40-letiyu XX s'ezda: Taina zakrytogo doklada', Sovershenno sekretno (Moscow), 1 (1996), 3-4
20. Vyacheslav Sereda and Janos M. Rainer (eds), Dontes a Kremlben, 1956: A szovjet partelnokseg vitai Magyarorszagrol (Budapest 1996)
21. The notes about Hungary appeared in two parts under the title 'Kak reshalis' 'voprosy Vengrii': Rabochie zapisi zasedanii Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, iyul'-noyabr' 1956 g.', Istoricheskii arkhiv (Moscow), 2 and 3 (1996), 73-104 and 87-121, respectively. The notes about Poland appeared in Issue No. 5 of the same journal
22. See the assessment of this meeting and the annotated translation of the Czech notes by Mark Kramer, 'Hungary and Poland, 1956: Khrushchev's CPSU CC Presidium Meeting on East European Crises, 24 October 1956', Cold War International History Project Bulletin, 5 (Spring 1995), 1, 50-6. The Czech document, 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956 k situaci v Polsku a Mad'arsku', 25 October 1956, in Statni Ustredni Archiv (Praha), Archiv Ustredniho Vyboru Komunisticke Strany Ceskoslovenska (Arch. UV KSC), Fond (F.) 07/16 - A. Novotny, Svazek (Sv.) 3, was compiled by Jan Svoboda, a senior aide to the then leader of Czechoslovakia, Antonin Novotny, who attended the CPSU Presidium meeting
23. Lt-Gen. E.I. Malashenko, 'Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta', Voenno-istoricheskii zhumal (Moscow), 10, 11 and 12 (October, November and December 1993) and 1 (January 1994), 22-30
24. Jaroslaw Maciejewski and Zofia Trojanowicz (eds), Poznanski Czerwiec 1956 (Poznan 1990);
25. and Maciej Roman Bombicki, Poznan '56 (Poznan 1992)
26. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 9 i 12 iyulya 1956 g.', 12 July 1956 (Top Secret) in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, LI. 2-20b
27. 'Pol'skii narod kleimit organizatorov provokatsii', Pravda (Moscow), 1 July 1956, 6
28. The best overview of the events in Poland in 1956 is Pawel Machcewicz, Polski rok 1956 (Warsaw 1993). Leszek Gluchowski has done valuable work on the Soviet-Polish crisis; see, for example, his 'Poland, 1956: Khrushchev, Gomulka, and the "Polish October"', Cold War International History Project Bulletin, 5 (Spring 1995), 1, 38-49
29. See also Jerzy Poksinski, 'Wojsko Polskie w 1956 r. - problemy polityczne (1) i (2)', Wojsko i Wychowanie (Warsaw), 1-2 (1992), 40-78
30. Robert Los, Pazdziernik 1956 roku w perspektywie stosunkow polsko-radzieckich, PhD diss., University of Lodz, 1993.
31. For a sample of other perspectives on the 1956 Polish crisis, see Zbyslaw Rykowski and Wieslaw Wladyka, Polska proba Pazdziernik '56 (Krakow 1989), 232-4
32. Benon Dymek (ed.), Pazdziernik 1956: Szkice historyczne (Warsaw 1989); Bogdan Hillebrandt (ed.), Ideowopolityczne kontrowersje i konflikty lat 1956-1970 (Warsaw 1986)
33. Grzegorz Matuszak, Kryzysy spoleczno-polityczne w procesie budowy socjalizmu w Polsce Ludowej (Warsaw 1986)
34. and Antoni Czubinski, 'Kryzys polityczny 1956 roku w Polsce' in Antoni Czubinski (ed.), Kryzysy spoleczno-polityczne w Polsce Ludowej (Warsaw 1983), 80-114
35. 'Zapis' besedy N.S. Khrushcheva v Varshave', 233 (Special Dossier - Strictly Secret), notes by A. Mikoyan, 19-20 October 1956, in Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii (APRF), F. 3, Op. 65, D. 2, LI. 1-14. Further details about this meeting are contained in 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956', LI. 1-4
36. At the time, there were still 79 Soviet officers, including 28 generals, serving in the Polish army. See Edward Jan Nalepa, Oficerowie Radziecky w Wojsku Polskim w latach 1943-1968: Studium historyczno-wojskowe (Warsaw 1992), 43. For a valuable discussion of the military confrontation, see 'Wojskowe aspekty pazdziernika 1956r.' Polska Zbrojna (Warsaw), 18-20 October 1991, 3
37. This account is based on documents recently declassified at the Internal Military Service Archive (Archiwum Wojskowej Sluzby Wewnetrznej, or AWSW) and the Central Military Archive (Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, or CAW) in Warsaw, which were provided to the author by Leszek Gluchowski. See, in particular, the two reports compiled by Major Witold Osinski, deputy chief of the 2nd Section of the KBW's Military Counter-intelligence Directorate, in AWSW, sygn. 2859/20/K and CAW, sygn. 1812/92/8
38. See also the invaluable first-hand account by Wlodzimierz Mus, the KBW commander at the time, 'Spor generalow o Pazdziernik 1956: Czy grozila interwencja zbrojna?', Polityka (Warsaw), 42 (20 October 1990), 14
39. 'Zapis' besedy N. S. Khrushcheva v Varshave', L. 4
40. Comments by Stefan Staszewski, former PZPR CC Secretary, in Teresa Toranska (ed.), Oni (London 1985), 148
41. 'Komunikat o naradach Biura Politycznego KC PZPR i delegacji KC KPZR w Warszawie', Trybuna Ludu (Warsaw), 20 October 1956, 1
42. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 20 oktyabrya 1956 g.', 20 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, LI. 49-50
43. This was evident, for example, when Ochab stopped in Moscow in September 1956 on his way back from Beijing. See 'Priem Posla Pol'skoi Narodnoi Respubliki v SSSR tov. V. Levikovskogo, 10 sentyabrya 1956 g.,' 11 September 1956 (Secret), memorandum from N. Patolichev, Soviet deputy foreign minister, in Arkhiv Vneshnei Politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii (AVPRF), F. Referentura po Pol'she, Op. 38, Por. 9, Papka, 126, D. 031, L. 1
44. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 21 oktyabrya 1956 g.', 21 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 2
45. 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956', L. 8
46. Jacek Kuron, Wiara i wina: Do i od komunizmu (Warsaw 1990), 119
47. Mus, 'Czy grozila interwencja zbrojna?', op. cit., 14
48. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 21 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L. 2
49. Compare Khrushchev's account in 'Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva' with Molotov's less favourable reminiscences in Feliks Chuev (ed.), Sto sorok besed s Molotovym (Moscow 1991), 113
50. 'Telefonogramma po VCh', 15 November 1956 (Top Secret), from I. Maslennikov of the Soviet embassy in Warsaw, in AVPRF, F. Referentura po Pol'she, Op. 38, Por. 20, Pap. 127, D. 178, LI. 32-3
51. 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum No. ST-1272 (Top Secret), 18 December 1956, to the CPSU Secretariat from D. Polikarpov, head of the CPSU CC Culture Department, and A. Sazonov, sector head in the CPSU CC Culture Department, and 'Tsentral'nyi Komitet Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza: Tov. Suslovu Informatsiya', Memorandum No. 1255 (Top Secret), 15 December 1956, to the CPSU Presidium from I. Marchenko, first secretary of the Moscow city party committee, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 16, D. 1098, LI. 50-2 and 53-5, respectively
52. For the full transcript of these sessions, see 'Jegyzkonyv a Szovjet es a Magyar part-es allami vezetok targyalasairol', 13-16 June 1953 (Top Secret), in Magyar Orszagos Leveltar, 276, F.102/65, oe
53. 'Plenum TsK KPSS - XIX Sozyv: Stenogramma chetyrnadtsatogo zasedaniya 12 iyulya 1955 g. (utrennego)', July 1955 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 2, Op. 1, D. 176, L. 143
54. 'Vypiska iz protokola zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS ot 3 maya 1956 g.', No. P13/XXIII (Strictly Secret), 3 May 1956, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L. 133
55. 'Zapis' besedy N.S. Khrushcheva s kitaiskimi tovarishchami 2 oktyabrya 1959 g. v Pekine', 2 October 1959 (Top Secret/Special Dossier), in APRF, F. 3, Op. 65, D. 331, L. 12. For other disparaging remarks by Khrushchev about Rakosi, see Micunovic, Moscow Diary, op. cit., 135-6, 140
56. See Janos Kadar's remarks to this effect in 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.', 3 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, LI. 31-33ob
57. The resolution was broadcast on Hungarian domestic radio on 30 June and published in Szabad Nep the following day. For an English translation, see Paul E. Zinner (ed.), National Communism and Popular Revolt in Eastern Europe: A Selection of Documents on Events in Poland and Hungary, February-November 1956 (New York 1956), 328-31
58. See, for example, 'Shifrtelegramma', from Yu. V. Andropov to the CPSU Presidium and Secretariat, 9 July 1956 (Special Dossier - Strictly Secret), in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1. 151-62. All quotations in this paragraph are from Andropov's cable
59. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 9 i 12 iyulya 1956 g.', L1. 2-2ob
60. 'TsK KPSS', 18 July 1956 (Strictly Secret - Urgent), Osobaya papka, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L. 231
61. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 9 i 12 iyulya 1956 g.', L. 2
62. 'Vypiska iz Protokola No. 28 zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS ot 12 iyulya 1956 g.', 12 July 1956 (Strictly Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 14, D. 41, L1. 1-2
63. 'Zapis' besedy A.I. Mikoyana s Matyashem Rakoshi, Andrashem Hegedushem, Erne Gere i Beloi Vegom, 13 iyulya 1956 g.', 17 July 1956 (Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1. 186-90
64. 'Zapis' vystuplenii na zasedaniya Politbyuro TsR VPT, 13 iyulya 1956 g.', 17 July 1956 (Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1.191-205
65. and 'TsK KPSS', 16 July 1956 (Strictly Secret - Urgent), Osobaya Papka, APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1. 183-5
66. See also 'Zapis' besedy A.I. Mikoyana s Yanoshem Kadarom, 14 iyulya 1956 g.', 17 July 1956 (Top Secret), compiled by Yu. V. Andropov, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1. 206-15
67. 'TsK KPSS', 18 July 1956 (Strictly Secret - Urgent), Osobaya papka, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 483, L1. 225-36. On the eve of the plenum, Mikoyan also held talks with key members of the HWP Central Leadership to ensure that Gero's candidacy would be supported
68. Malashenko, 'Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta' (Part 1), 23-4
69. 'Plan deistvii Osobogo korpusa po vosstanovleniyu obshchestvennogo poryadka na territorii Vengrii', 20 July 1956 (Strictly Secret), as recorded in Tsentral'nyi arkhiv Ministerstva oborony (TsAMO), F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 15, L1. 130-1
70. 'Zapis' besedy s Erno Gere, 2 sentyabrya 1956 g.', 27 September 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 28, D. 394, L1. 254-6
71. 'Shifrtelegramma', 12 October 1956 (Strictly Secret - Urgent - Special Dossier), from Yu. V. Andropov to the CPSU Presidium, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, L1. 64-75
72. Countless books and articles about the Hungarian revolution have been published since 1956. For a vivid and well-researched account of the events of 23-24 October, see Bill Lornax, Hungary 1956 (London 1976), esp. 106-23
73. For other useful perspectives, see Ferenc A. Vali, Rift and Revolt in Hungary: Nationalism versus Communism (Cambridge, MA 1961)
74. Paul Kecskemeti, The Unexpected Revolution: Social Forces in the Hungarian Uprising (Stanford, CA 1961)
75. Charles Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc (Durham, NC 1986)
76. and Paul E. Zinner, Revolution in Hungary (New York 1962). Until recently, reliable Hungarian-language accounts were relatively few in number, but that has changed dramatically since communism ended. The large number of publications put out in Budapest by the Institute for the Study of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution are a particularly rich source, as are some of the monographs sponsored by the Institute of History at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
77. Other key sources are 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956', L1.8-14
78. and 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum from Marshal Georgii Zhukov, Soviet Minister of Defence, and Marshal Vasilii Sokolovskii, Chief of the Soviet General Staff, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret - Special Dossier) to the CPSU Presidium, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, L1. 85-7
79. The written request, dated 24 October 1956 and signed by the then Prime Minister, Andras Hegedus, was transmitted by Andropov in a ciphered telegram on 28 October. See 'Shifrtelegramma' (Strictly Secret - Urgent), 28 October 1956, from Yu. V. Andropov, in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, P. 6, D. 5, L. 12
80. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 23 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L1. 4-4ob
81. 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956', L. 9
82. Malashenko, 'Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta' (Part 1), 27
83. The preliminary directives are recorded in TsAMO, F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 15, L1. 130-1
84. 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum from Marshal Georgii Zhukov, Soviet Minister of Defence, and Marshal Vasilii Sokolovskii, Chief of the Soviet General Staff, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret - Special Dossier) to the CPSU Presidium, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, L1. 85-7. This memorandum lays out in detail the complexion and assignments of the Soviet ground and air forces
85. 'Shifrtelegramma iz Budapeshta', Cable from A. Mikoyan and M. Suslov to the CPSU Presidium, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, Pap. 6, D. 5, L. 2
86. The Soviet defence ministry's complete list of Hungarian army units that defected to the insurgents was recently declassified at the main Russian military archive, TsAMO, F. 32, Op. 701291, D. 17, L1. 33-48
87. Important samples of these messages, declassified in 1992, are available in 'Vengriya, oktyabr'-noyabr' 1956 goda: Iz arkhiva TsK KPSS', Istoricheskii arkhiv (Moscow), 5 (1993), 132-41
88. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 26 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L1. 62-62ob
89. Citations here are from 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 28 oktyabrya 1956 g.,' L1. 54-63
90. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L1. 9, 10
91. 'TsK KPSS', High-Frequency Transmission, 30 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 89, Op. 45, D. 12, L. 2
92. See the first-hand comments by Gyorgy G. Heltai, the Hungarian Deputy Foreign Minister under Nagy's government, 'International Aspects', in Bela K. Kiraly and Paul Jonas, The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 in Retrospect, East European Monograph No. XL (Boulder, CO 1978), esp. 52-3.
93. The negotiations are also briefly recounted in Tibor Meray, Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin: Imre Nagy and the Hungarian Revolution, trans, by Howard L. Katzander (London 1959), 163-5
94. and 'Szemtol-szembe Mikojannal es Szuszloval', Igazsag (Budapest), 1 November 1956, 1
95. Khrushchev, 'Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva', op. cit., 73-4
96. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L1. 15-18ob
97. 'Vypiska iz protokola No. 49 zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS ot 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.: O polozhenii v Vengrii', No. P49/VI (Strictly Secret), 31 October 1956, in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 484, L. 41
98. For a detailed survey of the crisis as recorded in declassified US documents, see US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, vol. XVI: Suez Crisis, July 26-December 31, 1956 (Washington, DC 1990)
99. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 28 oktyabrya 1956 g.', L. 61
100. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.', 31 October 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L1. 15-18ob. If Khrushchev had been privy to secret US deliberations, he would have realized that the USA had no intention of directly supporting the French-British-Israeli operation, either militarily or diplomatically. See, for example, 'Memorandum of a Conference with the President, White House, Washington, October 30, 1956, 10.06-10.55 am', in FRUS/1955-1957/Vol. XVI, 851-5
101. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 34. On this same point, Sandor Kopacsi recounts a very intriguing comment that Ivan Serov, the head of the Soviet KGB, allegedly made when he was arresting Kopacsi just after the invasion: 'Suez caught us [in Moscow] by surprise. We were compelled to resort to military measures in the Danube Basin because of that area's strategic importance to any operations we might conduct in the Near East.' See Kopacsi, Au nom de la ctasse ouvrière, op. cit., 201. If Kopacsi recorded Serov's statement accurately, and if - assuming the statement is accurate - Serov was being sincere, this passage sheds valuable light on Khrushchev's remarks
102. Micunovic, Moscow Diary, op. cit., 136
103. Khrushchev, 'Memuary Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva', 73
104. 'Protocol No. 54 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 24 oct. 1956', 24 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arhiva Comitetului Central al Partidului Comunist Roman (Arh. CCPCR), Bucharest, F. Biroul Politic, Dosar (Do.) 354/56, ff. 1-5
105. This document is included in the valuable new collection edited by Corneliu Mihai Lungu and Mihai Retegan, 1956 Explozia: Perceptii romane, iugoslave si sovietice asupra evenimentelor din Polonia si Ungaria (Bucharest 1996)
106. 'Protocol No. 55 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 26 oct. 1956', 26 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh, CCPCR, F. Biroul Politic, Do. 355/56, ff. 1-5
107. 'Protocol Nr. 58 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 30 oct. 1956', 30 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh. CCPCR, F. Biroul Politic, Do. 358/56, ff. 3-5
108. 'Stenograma conferintei organizatiei regionale al CC al PMR', 23 November 1956 (Top Secret), in Arh. CCPCR, F. 85, Do. 84/56, ff. 1-8. This report is not included in the Lungu/Retegan volume. I am grateful to Mihai Retegan for providing me with a copy of the document
109. 'Protocol Nr. 58 al sedintei Biroului Politic al CC al PMR din 30 oct. 1956', ff. 3-5
110. 'Stenograficky zapis ze zasedani UV KSC, 5-6 December 1956 (Top Secret), in SUA, Arch. UV KSC, F. 07, Sv. 14, Archivna jednotka (A.j.) 14
111. 'Zabezpeceni klidu na uzemi CSR a statnich hranic s Mad'arskem', Report from Col.-General Vaclav Kratochvil, Chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, and Lt.-General Jaroslav Dockal, Chief of Operations, 29 October 1956 (Top Secret), in Vojensky historicky archiv (VHA) Praha, Fond Ministra narodni obrany (MNO) CSR, 1956, Operacni sprava Generalniho stabu cs. armady (GS/OS), 2/8-39b
112. 'Souhrn hlaseni operacniho dustojnika Generalniho stabu cs. armady', Notes from Col.-General Vaclav Kratochvil, Chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, to the KSC Central Committee (Top Secret), 27 October 1956, in VHA Praha, F. MNO, 1956, GS/OS, 2/8-49b
113. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 1 noyabrya 1956 g.', 1 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 22
114. Wilfried Otto (ed.), 'Ernst Wollweber: Aus Erinnerungen - Ein Porträt Walter Ulbrichts', Beiträge zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung (Berlin), 3 (1990), 365-7
115. Speech by Grotewohl to the SED CC plenum, 13 November 1956, in Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen im Bundesarchiv, Zentrales Parteiarchiv (Berlin), DY 30/IV 2/1/166, 247
116. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 35ob
117. 'Informatsiya: TsK KPSS', Memorandum No. 53-s (Top Secret), 23 September 1954, to the CPSU Presidium from A. Lutchenko, Deputy Sector Head in the CPSU CC Department for Science and Culture, and 'TsK KPSS', 11 October 1954 (Top Secret), from A. Rumyantsev, Head of the CPSU CC Department, to the CPSU Presidium, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 9, D. 1097, L1. 187-90 and 191-5, respectively
118. 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum No. St-1271 (Top Secret), 28 November 1956, from A. Lutchenko, Supervisor of the CPSU CC Department for Science, Educational Institutes, and Schools, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 16, D. 1098, L1. 44-7
119. For a detailed, top-secret account of the disorders, see 'Zakrytoe pis'mo', 12 March 1956 (Top Secret), from S. Statnikov, Tbilisi correspondent for Trud, to the CPSU Central Committee, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 140, L1. 53-67
120. 'Prikaz No. 14 Nachal'nika Tbilisskogo garnizona', from Major-General Gladkov, commander of the Tbilisi garrison, 9 March 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 140, L. 68
121. 'O kul'te lichnosti i preodolenii ego posledstvii', in KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh i resheniyakh sezdov", konferentsii i plenumov TsK, 8th edn (Moscow 1978), vol. 7, 212
122. For a cogent analysis of this matter based on newly declassified materials, see M.R. Zezina, 'Shokovaya terapiya: Ot 1953-go k 1956 godu', Otechestvennaya istoriya (Moscow), 2 (1995), esp. 129-33
123. In addition to other sources cited here, see 'Informatsiya v TsK KPSS iz Ministerstva prosveshcheniya RSFSR', Memorandum No. 41388 (Top Secret), from E. Afanasenko, RSFSR Minister of Education, to the CPSU Presidium, 28 November 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 181, L1. 82-9
124. 'TsK KPSS: Informatsiya', 7 November 1956 (Top Secret), from regional KGB stations to the CPSU Presidium, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 30, D. 141, L. 67
125. See the first-hand account by the former KGB Deputy Director, Filipp Bobkov, KGB i vlast' (Moscow 1995), 144-5
126. 'Tsentral'nyi Komitet Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza: Tov. Suslovu Informatsiya', Memorandum No. ST-1255 (Top Secret), from I. Marchenko, First Secretary of the Moscow party committee, to the CPSU Secretariat, 15 December 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 16, D. 1098, L1. 53-5
127. 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum No. ST-1272 (Top Secret), 18 December 1956, from D. Polikarpov and A. Sazonov of the CPSU CC Culture Department to the CPSU Secretariat, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 16, D. 1098, L1. 50-2
128. 'TsK KPSS', Memorandum No. ST-1256 (Top Secret/Special Dossier 56), 15 December 1956, from N. Mikhailov, Soviet Minister of Culture, to the CPSU Presidium, in TsKhSD, F. 4, Op. 16, D. 1098, L. 50
129. 'Tsentral'nyi Komitet Kommunisticheskoi Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza: Tov. Suslovu Informatsiya', L. 53
130. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 4 noyabrya 1956 g.', 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, L. 36ob
131. 'Byuro TsK KPSS po RSFSR: O merakh uluchsheniya ideino-vospitatel'noi raboty v vysshikh uchebnykh zavedeniyakh', 12 November 1956 (Top Secret), from N. Kaz'min, Head of the CPSU CC Department of Science, Schools and Culture, and A. Makhov, Sector Head in the CPSU CC Department of Science, Schools and Culture, in TsKhSD, F. 5, Op. 37, D. 2, Ll. 95-8
132. Gati, Hungary and the Soviet Bloc, op. cit., 153
133. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 1 noyabrya 1956 g.', 1 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 19-22
134. See, for example, Mikoyan's comments during the secret proceedings of the June 1957 CPSU CC plenum (which removed the Anti-Party Group) in 'Plenum TsK KPSS, iyun' 1957 goda: Stenograficheskii otchet', No. P2500 (Strictly Secret), 22-29 June 1957, in TsKhSD, F. 2, Op. 1, D. 259, Ll. 27ob-28ob
135. and 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.', 3 November 1956 (Top Secret), in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 31-3ob
136. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 24ob
137. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 32
138. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 29
139. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.', Ll. 31-3
140. In addition to Kadar's account in 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.', see the cable sent to Moscow by Andropov on 1 November - 'Shifrtelegramma', 1 November 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, P. 6, D. 5, Ll. 17-19 - which provides valuable corroboration of Kadar's remarks
141. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 31 oktyabrya 1956 g.', Ll. 15-18ob
142. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 30 oktyabrya 1956 g.', in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1006, Ll. 6-14. The principles of Pancha Shila were endorsed in a joint statement by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in New Delhi on 28 June 1954. The five principles were intended to 'guide relations between the two countries' as well as 'relations with other countries in Asia and in other parts of the world'. For the full text of the statement, see G.V. Ambekar and V.D. Divekar (eds), Documents on China's Relations with South and South-East Asia (1949-1962) (New York 1964), 7-8
143. See 'Zapis' telefonogrammy', c. 1 November 1956, in TsKhSD, F. 3, Op. 12, D. 1005, L. 66
144. 'Protokol Nr. 135 posiedzenia Biura Politycznego w dn. IXI.1956r.', 1 November 1956 (Top Secret), in Archiwum Akt Nowych (AAN), Warsaw, Archiwum Komitetu Centralnego Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Rabotniczej (Arch. KC PZPR), Paczka (Pa.) 15, Tom (T.) 58, Dokument (Dok.) 134. This protocol is included in the valuable collection of declassified Polish documents edited by Janos Tischler, Rewolucja wegierska 1956 w polskich dokumentach, Dokumenty do dziejow PRL No. 8 (Warsaw 1995)
145. Gomulka's conflicting thoughts about the matter can be seen in 'Stenogram Krajowej Narady Aktywu Partyjnego odbutego w dn. 4 listopada 1956 r.: Wystapenia W Gomulki', 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in AAN, Arch. KC PZPR, 237/V-241
146. 'Protokol Nr. 136 posiedzenia Biura Politycznego w dniu 4 listopada 1956 r.', 4 November 1956 (Top Secret), in AAN, Arch. KC PZPR, Pa. 15, T. 58, Dok. 135
147. 'Usneseni 151 schuze Politickeho byra UV KSC k bodu 1: Udalosti v Mad'arsku', 2 November 1956 (Top Secret), in SUA Praha, Arch. UV KSC, F. 02/2 - Politicke byro UV KSC 1954-1962, Sv. 120, A.j. 151
148. For a very useful collection of newly declassified materials tracing Yugoslav-Hungarian relations in late October and early November 1956, see Jozsef Kiss, Zoltan Ripp and Istvan Vida (eds), Magyar-]ugoszlav Kapcsolatok 1956: Dokumentumok (Budapest 1995), esp. 125 ff
149. See Imre Horvath's handwritten summary (in Hungarian) of Khrushchev's remarks, in Magyar Orszagos Leveltar, XIX J-l-K Horvath Imre kulugyminiszter iratai, 55, doboz. For some reason, Malin did not record Khrushchev's speech in the notes from the full session ('Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 3 noyabrya 1956 g.', LI. 31-3ob)
150. See, for example, 'Zprava o opatrenich k zesileni bojove pohotovosti vojsk'. Report from Col.-General Vaclav Kratochvil, Chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, and Lt.-General Evzen Chlad, Chief of the Main Logistical Directorate, to the MNO Collegium (Top Secret), 31 October 1956, in VHA Praha, F. MNO, 1956, GS/OS 2/8-49b
151. See also 'Rozkaz k provedeni vojenskych opatreni na hranicich s Mad'arskem', from Col.-General Vaclav Kratochvil, Chief of the Czechoslovak General Staff, to the 2nd Military District in Trencin (Strictly Secret), 28 October 1956, in VHA Praha, F. MNO, 1956, GS/OS, 2/8-2b
152. Malashenko, 'Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta' (Part 3), op. cit., 33
153. On the preparations by Maleter, see Miklos Horvath, Pal Maleter (Budapest 1995), esp. 223-8
154. 'Stav Mad'arske lidove armady a priciny jejiho rozkladu', LI. 4-5. The quoted phrase is from 'Shifrtelegramma iz Budapeshta', Cable from A. Mikoyan and M. Suslov to the CPSU Presidium, 24 October 1956 (Strictly Secret), in AVPRF, F. 059a, Op. 4, Pap. 6, D. 5, L. 2
155. On the disarming operations, see 'Informatsiya o polozhenii v Vengrii po sostoyaniyu na 21.00 4 noyabrya 1956 goda', Report No. 31613 (Top Secret), from Soviet Defence Minister G. Zhukov to the CPSU Presidium, and 'Informatsiya o polozhenii v Vengrii po sostoyaniyu na 9.00 5 noyabrya 1956 goda', Report No. 31614 (Top Secret), from Soviet Defence Minister G. Zhukov to the CPSU Presidium, both in APRF, F. 3, Op. 64, D. 485, LI. 102 and 103-4, respectively
156. See also Malashenko, 'Osobyi korpus v ogne Budapeshta' (Part 3), op. cit., 34, 37
157. 'Informatsiya o polozhenii v Vengrii po sostoyaniyu na 21.00 6 noyabrya 1956 goda', Report No. 31618 (Top Secret), from Soviet Defence Minister G.K. Zhukov to the CPSU Presidium, in AVPRF, F. 0536, Op. 1, P. 5, D. 65, L. 63. Among the other cities in which Soviet troops encountered fierce resistance were Budaorsi, Csepel, Jaszberenyi, Kaposvar, Kecskemet, Kobanya, Komlo, Mezokovesd, Miskolc, Obuda, Pecs, Soroksar, Szolnok, Szombathely, Thokoly, Ulloi and Veszprem
158. 'Rabochaya zapis' zasedaniya Prezidiuma TsK KPSS, 2 noyabrya 1956 g.', L. 30
159. See 'Plenum TsK KPSS, iyun' 1957 goda', LI. 2, 25. The charge of 'dangerous zigzags' was levelled by Molotov at a CPSU Presidium meeting a few days before the Central Committee plenum
160. 'Memorandum from the Director of Central Intelligence to the President', 20 November 1956 (Secret), in US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955-1957, vol. XXV: Eastern Europe (Washington, DC 1988), 473, 475
161. Data on Hungarian and Soviet casualties come, respectively, from Peter Gosztonyi, 'Az 1956-os forradalom szamokban', Nepszabadsag (Budapest), 3 November 1990, 3; and 'Sobytiya v Vengrii 1956 g.', in Col.-General G.A. Krivosheev (ed.), Grif sekretnosti snyat: Poteri vooruzhenykh sil SSSR v voinakh, boevykh deistviyakh i voennykh konfliktakh: Statisticheskoe issledovanie (Moscow 1993), 397. The number of Soviet deaths was 720, and the number of Soviet wounded was 1540. The number of Hungarian deaths was 2502, and the number of Hungarian wounded was 19, 226
162. Attila Szakolczai, 'A forradalmat koveto megtorlas soran kivegzettekrol', in Evkonyv, vol. 3 (Budapest 1994), 237-56. Szakolczai provides a considerably lower figure (229) for the number of executions
163. The figure of 600 comes from Maria Ormos, 'A konszolidacio problemai 1956 es 1958 kozott', Tarsadalmi Szemle, vol. 44, nos. 8-9 (1989), 48-65
164. See also Janos Balassa et al. (eds), Halottaink, 1 vols (Budapest 1989)
165. 'Zprava o jednani na UV KSSS 24. rijna 1956', op. cit., L. 12
166. Testimony of former National Defence Minister, Lajos Czinege, in Magyar Orszaggyules, A Honvedelmi Bizottsag 1989 oktoberi ulesszakan letrhozott vizsgalobizottsag 1989 december 11-i, 1990 januar 3-i, 1990 januar 1 S-i, 1990 februar 6-i ulese jegyzokonyvenek nyilt reszlete, 5 vols (1994), vol. 1, 261
167. Tov. Orlovu A.L.', Memorandum No. 1869/2 (Top Secret), 28 December 1956, transmitting a report prepared by I. Tugarinov, Deputy Head of the Foreign Ministry's Information Committee, in AVPRF, F. Referentura po Vengrii, Op. 36, Por. 9, Pap. 47a, D. 110, LI. 11-18
168. An English translation of this document, as well as an insightful commentary by James Hershberg, can be found in the Cold War International History Bulletin, 4 (Fall 1994), 61-4
169. The notion of a trade-off between 'cohesion' and 'viability' is well presented in James F. Brown, Relations between the Soviet Union and its East European Allies: A Survey, R-1742-PR (Santa Monica, CA 1975)