The grammar of technology: German and French diesel engineering, 1920-1940

Technology and Culture

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 26-46

  Hård, Mikael ^a   Knie, Andreas ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0038848348     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.1999.0046     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Imanuel Lauster, "Entstehung und Entwicklung des Dieselmotors," in Dieselmaschinen II (Berlin, 1926), 31-33, at 33. German and French quotations throughout this article have been translated into English by the authors.
2. Concerning technological visions (in German, Leitbilder), see Meinolf Dierkes, Ute Hoffmann, and Lutz Marz, Visions of Technology: Social and Institutional Factors Shaping the Development of New Technologies (Frankfurt a.M. and New York, 1996).
3. According to La praxis, January 1936, 31, Rudolf Diesel supposedly said this to his friends.
4. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
5. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
6. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
7. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
8. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
9. Lynwood Bryant, "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 7 (1976): 432-46; C. Lyle Cummins, Diesel's Engine, vol. 1, From Conception to 1918 (Lake Oswego, Ore., 1993); Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg, 1937); Andreas Knie, Diesel: Karriere einer Technik. Genese und Formierungsprozesse im Motorenbau (Berlin, 1991); Friedrich Sass, Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaues von 1860 bis 1918 (Berlin, 1962); Donald E. Thomas, Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1987).
10. Conrad Matschoß, Die Entstehung der Dampfmaschine (Berlin, 1908), 107.
11. Thorstein Veblen, Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution (New York, 1915).
12. Lewis Mumford, "Authoritarian and Democratic Technics," Technology and Culture 5 (1964): 1-8.
13. See, for example, Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, eds., The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, 1985); Meinolf Dierkes and Ute Hoffmann, eds., New Technology at the Outset: Social Forces in the Shaping of Technological Innovations (Frankfurt a.M. and Boulder, Colo., 1992); and Leo Marx and Merritt Roe Smith, eds., Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass., 1994).
14. See, for example, Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, eds., The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, 1985); Meinolf Dierkes and Ute Hoffmann, eds., New Technology at the Outset: Social Forces in the Shaping of Technological Innovations (Frankfurt a.M. and Boulder, Colo., 1992); and Leo Marx and Merritt Roe Smith, eds., Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass., 1994).
15. See, for example, Donald MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, eds., The Social Shaping of Technology: How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum (Milton Keynes, 1985); Meinolf Dierkes and Ute Hoffmann, eds., New Technology at the Outset: Social Forces in the Shaping of Technological Innovations (Frankfurt a.M. and Boulder, Colo., 1992); and Leo Marx and Merritt Roe Smith, eds., Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass., 1994).
16. Werner Rammert, Technik aus soziologischer Perspektive: Forschungsstand, Theorieansätze, Fallbeispiele (Opladen, 1993).
17. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983). A growing interest in the study of "national styles" is also apparent in the history of science and may be exemplified by Herbert Mehrtens, "Der französische Stil und der deutsche Stil: Nationalismus, Nationalsozialismus und Mathematik, 1900-1940," in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 116-29; and Mary Joe Nye, "National Styles? French and English Chemistry in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Osiris, 2nd ser., 8 (1993): 30-49.
18. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983). A growing interest in the study of "national styles" is also apparent in the history of science and may be exemplified by Herbert Mehrtens, "Der französische Stil und der deutsche Stil: Nationalismus, Nationalsozialismus und Mathematik, 1900-1940," in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 116-29; and Mary Joe Nye, "National Styles? French and English Chemistry in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Osiris, 2nd ser., 8 (1993): 30-49.
19. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983). A growing interest in the study of "national styles" is also apparent in the history of science and may be exemplified by Herbert Mehrtens, "Der französische Stil und der deutsche Stil: Nationalismus, Nationalsozialismus und Mathematik, 1900-1940," in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 116-29; and Mary Joe Nye, "National Styles? French and English Chemistry in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries," Osiris, 2nd ser., 8 (1993): 30-49.
20. Hans-Liudger Dienel, Ingenieure zwischen Hochschule und Industrie: Kältetechnik in Deutschland und Amerika, 1870-1930 (Göttingen, 1995).
21. Alain Dewerpe, "Le style et le drapeau: Les conventions du produit naval français au début du XXème siècle" (paper presented at the conference "Institutions et conventions du travail en France et en Allemagne, 1890-1990," arranged by the Institut de recherche sur les sociétés contemporaines [IRESCO] of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique [CNRS] and WZB in Paris, May 1995).
22. John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 200 . In this paragraph we have chosen only to refer to historians of technology, but the concept of "technological style" is also discussed by archaeologists and historians of architecture; compare Steven Lubar and W. David Kingery, eds., History from Things: Essays on Material Culture (Washington, D.C., and London, 1993).
23. John M. Staudenmaier, Technology's Storytellers: Reweaving the Human Fabric (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), 200 . In this paragraph we have chosen only to refer to historians of technology, but the concept of "technological style" is also discussed by archaeologists and historians of architecture; compare Steven Lubar and W. David Kingery, eds., History from Things: Essays on Material Culture (Washington, D.C., and London, 1993).
24. Staudenmaier, 200.
25. Theo Delfried Domina, "Antriebstechnik," in Ein Jahrhundert Automobilgeschichte: Nutzfahrzeuge, ed. Olaf von Fersen (Dusseldorf, 1987), 120-63, at 130.
26. Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, Mass., 1991).
27. Harry Collins, "The Place of the Core-Set in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science," History of Science 19 (1981): 6-19.
28. For comparison: Switzerland, 13 percent; Russia and Belgium, each 9 percent; United States, 5 percent; and Great Britain, 4 percent (Eugen Diesel and Georg Strössner, Kampf um eine Maschine [Berlin, 1950], 142).
29. Dominique Renouard, Les transports de marchandise par fer, route et eau depuis 1850 (Paris, 1960), 73; Alfred Sauvy, Histoire économique de la France entre les deux guerres (Paris, 1984), 3:323.
30. Dominique Renouard, Les transports de marchandise par fer, route et eau depuis 1850 (Paris, 1960), 73; Alfred Sauvy, Histoire économique de la France entre les deux guerres (Paris, 1984), 3:323.
31. Louis Muron, Marius Berliet (1866-1949) (Lyons, 1995), 117.
32. The figures for 1929 (254,000 compared to 123,000) come from Walter Ostwald, "Um die Zukunft der deutschen Kraftfahrt," Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift 34 (1931): 225. The figures for 1932 are from Hans-Otto Neubauer, Chronik des Automobils (Gütersloh and Munich, 1994), 197.
33. The figures for 1929 (254,000 compared to 123,000) come from Walter Ostwald, "Um die Zukunft der deutschen Kraftfahrt," Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift 34 (1931): 225. The figures for 1932 are from Hans-Otto Neubauer, Chronik des Automobils (Gütersloh and Munich, 1994), 197.
34. James M. Laux, "Les moteurs Diesel pour les transports," Culture technique 19 (1989): 20-28, at 24.
35. VDA Tatsachen und Zahlen aus der Kraftverkehrswirtschaft, 1948 (Frankfurt a.M., 1949).
36. Jean-Pierre Bardou et al., The Automobile Revolution: The Impact of an Industry (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982), 140; Patrick Fridenson, Histoire des usines Renault, vol. 1, Naissance de la grande entreprise, 1898-1939 (Paris, 1972), 198.
37. Jean-Pierre Bardou et al., The Automobile Revolution: The Impact of an Industry (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1982), 140; Patrick Fridenson, Histoire des usines Renault, vol. 1, Naissance de la grande entreprise, 1898-1939 (Paris, 1972), 198.
38. Joseph Jones, The Politics of Transport in Twentieth-Century France (Kingston, Ont., and Montreal, 1984), 45.
39. Ibid., 89.
40. Ibid., 102.
41. Otto-Peter A. Bühler, "Nutzfahrzeugsgeschichte international," in von Fersen (n. 15 above), 10-119, at 24; Wolfgang H. Gebhardt, Taschenbuch deutscher Lkw-Bau, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1989), 7-20.
42. Otto-Peter A. Bühler, "Nutzfahrzeugsgeschichte international," in von Fersen (n. 15 above), 10-119, at 24; Wolfgang H. Gebhardt, Taschenbuch deutscher Lkw-Bau, vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1989), 7-20.
43. Adolf Nägel, "Die Dieselmaschine der Gegenwart," in Dieselmaschinen (Berlin, 1923), 3-35.
44. Ibid., 26.
45. Gert Hortleder, Das Gesellschaftsbild des Ingenieurs: Zum politischen Verhalten der Technischen Intelligenz in Deutschland (Frankfurt a.M., 1970).
46. "Fachsitzung Verbrennungsmotoren gelegentlich der 66. Hauptversammlung des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Mannheim-Heidelberg 1927," in Dieselmaschinen IV (Berlin, 1929), 33-35, at 33.
47. Nägel, 5. Interestingly, both Nägel and Lauster could make strategic use of Rudolf Diesel's name in the 1920s, although during Diesel's lifetime they had not always agreed with his design solutions (Eugen Diesel [n. 4 above], 360).
48. Rudolf Diesel, Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors (Berlin, 1913), 9-10.
49. Wilhelm Riehm, "Schnellaufende Dieselmotoren für Fahrzeuge," in Dieselmaschinen II (n. I above), 63-68.
50. Fritz Modersohn, "Druckeinspritzung oder Vorkammerverfahren? Zur Frage des Arbeitsverfahrens für kompressorlose Dieselmaschinen," in Dieselmaschinen III (Berlin, 1927), 3:64-72;
51. Julius Magg, Dieselmaschinen: Grundlagen, Bauarten, Probleme (Berlin, 1928), 262.
52. See, for example, Mikael Hård and Andrew Jamison, eds., The Intellectual Appropriation of Technology: Discourses on Modernity, 1900-1939 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), chap. 3.
53. Gebhardt (n. 28 above), 16-17.
54. Karl-Heinz Roth and Martin Schmid, eds., Die Daimler-Benz AG 1916-1948: Schlüsseldokumente zur Konzerngeschichte (Nördlingen, 1987).
55. For a long time, ̊Wir verstehen mehr vom Automobilbau als der Kunde" (We understand more about automobile engineering than the customer does) was a catch-phrase in the Daimler-Benz company. See Heinz C. Hoppe, Ein Stern für die Welt (Munich, 1991), 258, and Roth and Schmid, 333.
56. Gebhardt, 101.
57. Hans Christoph Graf von Seherr-Thoss, Die deutsche Automobilindustrie (Stuttgart, 1979), 271.
58. Fritz Blaich, "Die 'Fehlrationalisierung' in der deutschen Automobilindustrie," Tradition 18 (1973): 18-36.
59. Louis Betz, Das Volksauto: Rettung oder Untergang der deutschen Automobilindustrie (Stuttgart, 1931), 11.
60. Günter Schmitt, Hugo Junkers: Ein Leben für die Technik (Planegg, 1991), 45.
61. Hugo Junkers, "Studien und experimentelle Arbeiten zur Konstruktion meines Großölmotors" Jahrbuch der Schiffbautechnischen Gesellschaft 13 (1912): 264-339.
62. Compare Edward Constant II, The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution (Baltimore, 1980).
63. Hermann Golle, "Zur Entwicklung des Junkers-Gegenkolbenmotors," in Kolloquium zum 125. Geburtstag von Hugo Junkers (Dessau, 1984), 71-80.
64. Paul W. Wilkinson, Aircraft Diesels (New York and Chicago, 1940), 234.
65. B. Reinders, Die Motoren- und Kraftwagenfabriken der Fa Fried. Krupp Essen 1920-1955/56 (Essen, [1957?]).
66. The "rather original" quote is from A. E. Thiemann, Fahrzeug-Dieselmotoren (Berlin, 1929), 283. See also J. Pietsch, "Bemerkenswertes über den 6,5-t Lastkraftwagen," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 1 (1938), 11-13; H. Haase, "Aus der Entwicklung der Krupp-Fahrzeugmotoren von 1924 bis 1957," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 15 (1957), 106-12.
67. The "rather original" quote is from A. E. Thiemann, Fahrzeug-Dieselmotoren (Berlin, 1929), 283. See also J. Pietsch, "Bemerkenswertes über den 6,5-t Lastkraftwagen," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 1 (1938), 11-13; H. Haase, "Aus der Entwicklung der Krupp-Fahrzeugmotoren von 1924 bis 1957," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 15 (1957), 106-12.
68. The "rather original" quote is from A. E. Thiemann, Fahrzeug-Dieselmotoren (Berlin, 1929), 283. See also J. Pietsch, "Bemerkenswertes über den 6,5-t Lastkraftwagen," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 1 (1938), 11-13; H. Haase, "Aus der Entwicklung der Krupp-Fahrzeugmotoren von 1924 bis 1957," Technische Mitteilungen Krupp, no. 15 (1957), 106-12.
69. G. Delanghe, "Les salons européens de l'automobile en 1928," Le génie civil 94 (1929): 34-37, 62-64, at 62.
70. G. Delanghe, "Le XXVe salon de l'automobile, véhicules industriels," Le génie civil 99 (1931): 617-23, 647-54, at 618.
71. Such trips were quite common in the early years of the automobile. They served the double purpose of creating public interest and of submitting the engines and cars to an endurance and reliability test (Mikael Hård and Andreas Knie, "The Ruler of the Game: The Defining Power of the Standard Automobile," in The Car and Its Environments: The Past, Present and Future of the Motorcar in Europe, ed. Knut H. Sørensen [Brussels and Luxembourg, 1994], 137-58).
72. A lengthy, verbatim section of his account is reprinted in Pierre Dumont, Peugeot sous le signe du lion (Paris, 1976), 385-88.
73. Ibid., 386.
74. Quoted in Pierre Dumont, Peugeot d'hier et d'avant-hier (Fontainebleau, 1983), 379.
75. Ludwig Hausfelder, Die kompressorlose Dieselmaschine: Ihre Entwicklung auf Grund der in- und ausländischen Patent-Literatur (Berlin, 1928), 188-90.
76. Christophe Dollet and Alain Dusart, Les sorciers du lion: Un siècle dans le secret du Bureau d'Études Peugeot (Paris, 1990), 55.
77. Concerning the concept of archetype, see Mikael Hård, Machines Are Frozen Spirit: The Scientification of Refrigeration and Brewing in the Nineteenth Century - A Weberian Interpretation (Frankfurt a.M. and Boulder, Colo., 1994), 50.
78. Hausfelder, 190-92; Thiemann (n. 51 above), 219-21.
79. In 1937 C.L.M. became a part of la Compagnie Générale des Moteurs, which Peugeot owned with Crédit du Nord. In 1949 C.L.M. left the Peugeot sphere altogether and was drawn into Industrielle de l'Est et du Nord (INDÉNOR), only to return to its origins in 1965, when INDÉNOR was sold to Peugeot.
80. Stephan Ittner, Dieselmotoren für die Luftfahrt: Innovationen und Traditionen im Junkers-Flugmotorenbau bis 1933 (Berlin, 1995), 143.
81. File "Peugeot (F) - 120G/1201G (1921-1928)" at Archive de la Fondation automobile Marius Berliet, Lyons (hereafter cited as AFAMB).
82. "Économie, sécurité, simplicité" were norms that C.L.M. put forth in advertisements presenting their engines; see file "C.L.M. (F) Catalogues publicitaires," AFAMB.
83. Le génie civil 95 (1929): 607.
84. La vie automobile, 25 June 1928, 241; Automobilia, November 1929, 27.
85. La vie automobile, 25 June 1928, 241; Automobilia, November 1929, 27.
86. Laux (n. 22 above), 24.
87. Automobilia, February 1929, 19.
88. Moteurs diesel (Bologne-Billancourt, 1988), 77-78.
89. "Copier et améliorer" (Copy and improve) was part of a slogan that Marius Berliet, founder of the Société des Automobiles Berliet, used to characterize his business strategy; see Sanchez Annick, Études et recherches chez Berliet-R. V.I. (Lyons, 1988), 76.
90. Paul Berliet, "La fabrication du moteur diesel chez Berliet," November 1994, manuscript located at the Fondation de l'Automobile Marius Berliet, Lyons. Paul Berliet is Marius's son and started to work in the company in 1935. He now directs the Fondation de l'Automobile Marius Berliet in Lyons.
91. Jacques Borgé and Nicolas Viassnoff, Berliet de Lyon (Paris, 1981), 178.
92. Muron (n. 20 above), 123.
93. Annick, 73.
94. Ibid.; Annick wrongly states the number as 74,000.
95. H. E. Degler, Diesel and Other Internal-Combustion Engines (Chicago, 1943).
96. The following account is largely based on a contemporary description written by an unknown collaborator of Ricardo: "Historique 'Ricardo,' 12.12.39," manuscript at AFAMB. Part of the process can also be followed in the archives of Ricardo Consulting Engineers, Shoreham-by-Sea, England.
97. "Historique 'Ricardo,' 12.12.39," 10.
98. The complete slogan read: "N'inventez-pas aux dépens du client, commencez par copier et améliorer"; Annick (n. 71 above), 76.
99. Gérard Declas, Recherches sur les Usines Berliet (1914-1949) (Paris, 1977), 37.
100. Laux (n. 22 above), 24.
101. Compare Herbert Mehrtens's (n. 10 above), discussion of the German formalist style in mathematics.
102. Compare Hård, Machines Are Frozen Spirit (n. 60 above), chap. 7.
103. Pierre Bourdieu, "The Production and Reproduction of Legitimate Language," in Language and Symbolic Power (n. 16 above), 43-65, at 58.
104. Ibid., 60.
105. Ibid., 61.
106. Peter Hindrichs and Ingo Kolboom, "Industrielle Rationalisierung in Deutschland und Frankreich bis zum zweiten Weltkrieg," in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 383-410.
107. Edna Andrews, "Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming," American Speech 71 (1996): 389-404.
108. Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 279-88.
109. On defining power, see Hård and Knie, "The Ruler of the Game" (n. 54 above). On linguistic profit, see William Labov, "Is There a Creole Speech Community?" in Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies, ed. Albert Valdam and Arnold Highfield (New York, 1980), 369-88.
110. On defining power, see Hård and Knie, "The Ruler of the Game" (n. 54 above). On linguistic profit, see William Labov, "Is There a Creole Speech Community?" in Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies, ed. Albert Valdam and Arnold Highfield (New York, 1980), 369-88.
111. Hindrichs and Kolboom.
112. Albert Broder, "Enseignement technique et croissance économique en Allemagne et en France, 1870-1914: Quelques éléments en vue d'une analyse approfondie," in Frankreich und Deutschland: Forschung, Technologie und industrielle Entwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Yves Cohen and Klaus Manfrass (Munich, 1990), 66-95.
113. Ibid., 81.
114. René Bardin, Les moteur à combustion Diesel et semi-Diesel, 3rd ed. (Paris, 1933).