Necessity in foreign policy

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 113, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 673-688

  Raymond, Gregory A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0038727880     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2658249     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, Paul Woodruff, ed. and trans. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1993), 30.
2. George F. Kennan, "Morality and Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs 64 (Winter 1985-86): 206. Former Secretary of State Dean Acheson exemplified this view when he described foreign policy making during the Truman administration in the following terms: "Our discussions centered on the appraisal of dangers and risks, the weighing of the need for decisive and effective action against considerations of prudence. . . . Moral talk did not bear on the issue." Cited in Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, eds., Ethics and Politics: Cases and Comments (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1990), xi. For a discussion of the fundamental assumptions shared by the variety of theorists who consider themselves to be realists, see Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986).
3. George F. Kennan, "Morality and Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs 64 (Winter 1985-86): 206. Former Secretary of State Dean Acheson exemplified this view when he described foreign policy making during the Truman administration in the following terms: "Our discussions centered on the appraisal of dangers and risks, the weighing of the need for decisive and effective action against considerations of prudence. . . . Moral talk did not bear on the issue." Cited in Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, eds., Ethics and Politics: Cases and Comments (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1990), xi. For a discussion of the fundamental assumptions shared by the variety of theorists who consider themselves to be realists, see Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986).
4. George F. Kennan, "Morality and Foreign Policy," Foreign Affairs 64 (Winter 1985-86): 206. Former Secretary of State Dean Acheson exemplified this view when he described foreign policy making during the Truman administration in the following terms: "Our discussions centered on the appraisal of dangers and risks, the weighing of the need for decisive and effective action against considerations of prudence. . . . Moral talk did not bear on the issue." Cited in Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, eds., Ethics and Politics: Cases and Comments (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1990), xi. For a discussion of the fundamental assumptions shared by the variety of theorists who consider themselves to be realists, see Michael Joseph Smith, Realist Thought from Weber to Kissinger (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986).
5. Charles Krauthammer, "How the Doves Became Hawks," Time, 17 May 1993, 74.
6. For a further analysis of Shultz's position and the realist view of international morality, see Charles W. Kegley, Jr. and Gregory A. Raymond, When Trust Breaks Down: Alliance Norms and World Politics (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 30-40. See also in this connection, Max Weber's discussion of the "ethic of ultimate ends" in Politics as a Vocation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1965), 46-49.
7. For a further analysis of Shultz's position and the realist view of international morality, see Charles W. Kegley, Jr. and Gregory A. Raymond, When Trust Breaks Down: Alliance Norms and World Politics (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990), 30-40. See also in this connection, Max Weber's discussion of the "ethic of ultimate ends" in Politics as a Vocation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1965), 46-49.
8. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 3rd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), 10.
9. The realist subordination of ethical considerations to matters of power politics has come under criticism from deontologists, who maintain that one should always behave in a particular way under certain circumstances. Moral duty, they submit, imposes an absolute injunction that is independent of any nonmoral value (such as national survival) produced by ignoring moral obligations. An early statement of this position can be found in Cicero's praise of the Athenians for rejecting Themistocles's proposal to launch a surprise attack against the Spartan fleet at Gytheum following the conclusion of the Persian Wars. Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Officiis, Margaret Atkins, trans. (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 118. Also see Immanuel Kant's distinction between "political moralism" and moral political leaders in Perpetual Peace, Lewis White Beck, trans. (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 37.
10. The realist subordination of ethical considerations to matters of power politics has come under criticism from deontologists, who maintain that one should always behave in a particular way under certain circumstances. Moral duty, they submit, imposes an absolute injunction that is independent of any nonmoral value (such as national survival) produced by ignoring moral obligations. An early statement of this position can be found in Cicero's praise of the Athenians for rejecting Themistocles's proposal to launch a surprise attack against the Spartan fleet at Gytheum following the conclusion of the Persian Wars. Marcus Tullius Cicero, De Officiis, Margaret Atkins, trans. (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 118. Also see Immanuel Kant's distinction between "political moralism" and moral political leaders in Perpetual Peace, Lewis White Beck, trans. (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 37.
11. Charles Krauthammer, "When to Intervene," The New Republic, 6 May 1985, 10.
12. The intellectual antecedents of this framework have been traced to several ancient Attic orators, including Naucrates and Zopyrus. In their opinion, the arguments applicable to defending one's actions revolve around the status of fact (conjectural stasis), definition (definitive stasis), and quality (qualitative stasis), where the quality of an act pertains to such matters as its practicality or expediency. See Quintilian, Institutio Oratorio, H.E. Butler, trans. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1921), vol. 3, bk. 6, 81-82.
13. See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the work of its thirty-first session, vol I, part 2, A/CN.4/SER.A/1979/Add.1 (New York: United Nations, 1980), 122-133; Edwardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, "International Responsibility" in Max Sørensen, ed., Manual of Public International Law (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968), 544; Jean Raby, "The State of Necessity and the Use of Force to Protect Nationals," Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1988, vol. 26 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989), 258; and Alan Wertheimer, Coercion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 146.
14. See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the work of its thirty-first session, vol I, part 2, A/CN.4/SER.A/1979/Add.1 (New York: United Nations, 1980), 122-133; Edwardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, "International Responsibility" in Max Sørensen, ed., Manual of Public International Law (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968), 544; Jean Raby, "The State of Necessity and the Use of Force to Protect Nationals," Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1988, vol. 26 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989), 258; and Alan Wertheimer, Coercion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 146.
15. See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the work of its thirty-first session, vol I, part 2, A/CN.4/SER.A/1979/Add.1 (New York: United Nations, 1980), 122-133; Edwardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, "International Responsibility" in Max Sørensen, ed., Manual of Public International Law (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968), 544; Jean Raby, "The State of Necessity and the Use of Force to Protect Nationals," Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1988, vol. 26 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989), 258; and Alan Wertheimer, Coercion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 146.
16. See Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1979, Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the work of its thirty-first session, vol I, part 2, A/CN.4/SER.A/1979/Add.1 (New York: United Nations, 1980), 122-133; Edwardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, "International Responsibility" in Max Sørensen, ed., Manual of Public International Law (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968), 544; Jean Raby, "The State of Necessity and the Use of Force to Protect Nationals," Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1988, vol. 26 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1989), 258; and Alan Wertheimer, Coercion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 146.
17. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
18. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
19. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
20. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
21. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
22. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
23. See William Ballis, The Legal Position of War (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1937), 50; Umberto Borsi, "Ragione di guerra e stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale," Rivista di diritto internazionale 10 (1916): 157-194; Werner Levi, Law and Politics in the International Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976), 58; Paola Anna Pillitu, Lo stato di necessità nel diritto internazionale (Perugia: Universita di Perugia, 1981), 11-65; Andrea Rapisardi-Mirabelli, "Breve nota critica in tema di 'stato di necessità' nel diritto internazionale," Rivista Italiana per le scienze giuridiche 62 (1919): 170; Burleigh Cushing Rodick, The Doctrine of Necessity in International Law (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 2-3; and Charles de Visscher, "Les lois de la guerre et la théorie de la nécessité," Revue générale de droit international public 24 (1917): 74-108.
24. E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1946), 10. Also see Steven Forde, "Classical Realism" in Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel, eds., Traditions of International Ethics (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 63.
25. E. H. Carr, The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1946), 10. Also see Steven Forde, "Classical Realism" in Terry Nardin and David R. Mapel, eds., Traditions of International Ethics (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 63.
26. Jack Donnelly, "Twentieth-Century Realism" in Nardin and Mapel, Traditions of International Ethics, 96. This conception of necessity is not limited to those who anchor their world views in the rapacity of international anarchy. Many individuals outside the realist camp endow national leaders with prerogative power during emergencies. For instance, David Hume contends that "All politicians will allow, and most philosophers, that reasons of state may in particular emergencies dispense with the rules of justice. . . . But nothing less than the most extreme necessity." Similarly, Thomas Jefferson held that strict observance of the law is one of the high duties of a public officer, though not the highest. "The laws of necessity, of self-preservation, of saving our country when in danger, are of a higher obligation. . . ." See Henry D. Aiken, ed., Hume's Moral and Political Philosophy (New York: Hafner, 1948), 203; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 24-25.
27. Jack Donnelly, "Twentieth-Century Realism" in Nardin and Mapel, Traditions of International Ethics, 96. This conception of necessity is not limited to those who anchor their world views in the rapacity of international anarchy. Many individuals outside the realist camp endow national leaders with prerogative power during emergencies. For instance, David Hume contends that "All politicians will allow, and most philosophers, that reasons of state may in particular emergencies dispense with the rules of justice. . . . But nothing less than the most extreme necessity." Similarly, Thomas Jefferson held that strict observance of the law is one of the high duties of a public officer, though not the highest. "The laws of necessity, of self-preservation, of saving our country when in danger, are of a higher obligation. . . ." See Henry D. Aiken, ed., Hume's Moral and Political Philosophy (New York: Hafner, 1948), 203; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 24-25.
28. Jack Donnelly, "Twentieth-Century Realism" in Nardin and Mapel, Traditions of International Ethics, 96. This conception of necessity is not limited to those who anchor their world views in the rapacity of international anarchy. Many individuals outside the realist camp endow national leaders with prerogative power during emergencies. For instance, David Hume contends that "All politicians will allow, and most philosophers, that reasons of state may in particular emergencies dispense with the rules of justice. . . . But nothing less than the most extreme necessity." Similarly, Thomas Jefferson held that strict observance of the law is one of the high duties of a public officer, though not the highest. "The laws of necessity, of self-preservation, of saving our country when in danger, are of a higher obligation. . . ." See Henry D. Aiken, ed., Hume's Moral and Political Philosophy (New York: Hafner, 1948), 203; and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Imperial Presidency (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), 24-25.
29. Cited in Evan Luard, Types of International Society (New York: Free Press, 1976), 174.
30. Gerhard L. Weinberg, "Munich After 50 Years," Foreign Affairs 67 (Fall 1988): 177.
31. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, Luigi Ricci, trans. (New York: Random House), 65. An earlier example of this distinction can be found in Aristides, who differentiated "between private morality and public conduct, on the ground that rules of justice were to be observed between individuals, but that considerations of expediency, of general utility should preponderate in matters of a public or interstatal character." Coleman Phillipson, The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and Rome (London: Macmillan, 1911), vol. ii, 96.
32. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, Luigi Ricci, trans. (New York: Random House), 65. An earlier example of this distinction can be found in Aristides, who differentiated "between private morality and public conduct, on the ground that rules of justice were to be observed between individuals, but that considerations of expediency, of general utility should preponderate in matters of a public or interstatal character." Coleman Phillipson, The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece and Rome (London: Macmillan, 1911), vol. ii, 96.
33. Giovanni Botero, The Reason of State, P. J. and D. P. Waley, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 41.
34. Cited in Friedrich Kratochwil, "On the Notion of 'Interest' in International Relations," International Organization 36 (Winter 1982): 12. A similar position was taken by Maximilian von Montgelas when he advised King Max Joseph of Bavaria that "the interests of state were his only compass." Cited in David Kaiser, Politics and War: European Conflict from Philip II to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 241.
35. Cited in Friedrich Kratochwil, "On the Notion of 'Interest' in International Relations," International Organization 36 (Winter 1982): 12. A similar position was taken by Maximilian von Montgelas when he advised King Max Joseph of Bavaria that "the interests of state were his only compass." Cited in David Kaiser, Politics and War: European Conflict from Philip II to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 241.
36. Cited in Maurizio Viroli, From Politics to Reason of State: The Acquisition and Transformation of the Language of Politics 1250-1600 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 266.
37. Carl J. Friedrich, Constitutional Reason of State (Providence: Brown University Press, 1957), 31n. The semantic confusion was produced by several factors. First, some writers muddied the definitional waters by echoing Ludovico Zuccolo's contention that there was no single reason of state; every government had its own reason of state. Second, theorists such as Federigo Bonaventura, Girolamo Frachetta, and Ludovico Settala increased the opacity by introducing the notion of "good" and "bad" reason of state, depending on whether the actions violated limits set by divine law. Finally, Scipione Ammirato, Arnold Clapman, and others made the concept even more enigmatic by linking it to mysterious principles on the art of governance that supposedly were taught to ancient rulers. Peter S. Donaldson, Machiavelli and Mystery of State (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 111-140.
38. Carl J. Friedrich, Constitutional Reason of State (Providence: Brown University Press, 1957), 31n. The semantic confusion was produced by several factors. First, some writers muddied the definitional waters by echoing Ludovico Zuccolo's contention that there was no single reason of state; every government had its own reason of state. Second, theorists such as Federigo Bonaventura, Girolamo Frachetta, and Ludovico Settala increased the opacity by introducing the notion of "good" and "bad" reason of state, depending on whether the actions violated limits set by divine law. Finally, Scipione Ammirato, Arnold Clapman, and others made the concept even more enigmatic by linking it to mysterious principles on the art of governance that supposedly were taught to ancient rulers. Peter S. Donaldson, Machiavelli and Mystery of State (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 111-140.
39. Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d'État and its Place in Modern History, Douglas Scott, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957), 207. For efforts to distinguish among different types of necessity, see Cesáreo Gutiérrez Espada, El estado de necesidad y el uso de la fuerza en derecho internacional (Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1987), 61-63; and Max Huber, "Die Kriegsrechtlichen Verträge und die Kriegsraison," Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 7 (1913): 351-374.
40. Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d'État and its Place in Modern History, Douglas Scott, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957), 207. For efforts to distinguish among different types of necessity, see Cesáreo Gutiérrez Espada, El estado de necesidad y el uso de la fuerza en derecho internacional (Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1987), 61-63; and Max Huber, "Die Kriegsrechtlichen Verträge und die Kriegsraison," Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 7 (1913): 351-374.
41. Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d'État and its Place in Modern History, Douglas Scott, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957), 207. For efforts to distinguish among different types of necessity, see Cesáreo Gutiérrez Espada, El estado de necesidad y el uso de la fuerza en derecho internacional (Madrid: Editorial Tecnos, 1987), 61-63; and Max Huber, "Die Kriegsrechtlichen Verträge und die Kriegsraison," Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht 7 (1913): 351-374.
42. Cardinal Richelieu (Armand Jean de Plessis), The Political Testament of Cardinal Richelieu, H.B. Hill, trans. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1961), 81-82, 96.
43. Fareed Zakaria, "Is Realism Finished?" The National Interest 30 (Winter 1992/93): 24.
44. Friedrich von Bernhardi, perhaps the most strident advocate of wars of necessity, proclaimed that some wars should be provoked, since war is "an indispensable factor of culture, in which a true civilized nation finds the highest expression of truth and vitality." Cited in Michael Howard, The Lessons of History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 60.
45. Cited in James Joll, The Origins of the First World War (London: Longman, 1984), 186.
46. Cited in Henry Wheaton, History of the Law of Nations in Europe and America (New York: Gould, Banks & Co., 1845), 67.
47. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, E. Colins, trans. (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1962), 64-65.
48. Felix E. Oppenheim, The Place of Morality in Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1991), 27.
49. Luigi Sturzo, The International Community and the Right of War, Barbara Barclay Carter, trans. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1929), 108.
50. All references to the text of the speech are from The New York Times Current History, The European War (New York: The New York Times Company, 1914), vol. i, 199-122.
51. Cited in Hajo Holborn, "Moltke and Schlieffen: The Prussian-German School" in Edward Mead Earle, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1943), 192.
52. Cited in Barbara Tuchman, The Guns of August (New York: Dell, 1962), 36.
53. Interview of Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg published in Charles F. Horne and Walter F. Austin, eds., The Great Events of the Great War (National Alumni, 1920), vol. i, 393-394.
54. See Jack Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984).
55. Interview published in Home and Austin, Great Events, 395.
56. Statement by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg issued to the Associated Press, published in New York Times, The European War, 222.
57. "Addendum to the Eighth Report on State Responsibility," Document A/CN.4/318/ADD.5-7, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1980 (New York: United Nations, 1982), vol. ii, 51.
58. See Barry Feinstein, "Self-Defense and Israel in International Law: A Reappraisal," Israel Law Review 11 (October 1976): 522. Although scholars like Hall maintain that "almost the whole of the duties of states are subordinated to the right of self-preservation," many others agree with Schwarzenberger that "the mischievous notion of 'self-preservation' is overdue for elimination from the vocabulary of the international lawyer." See William Edward Hall, A Treatise on International Law (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1924), 322; and Georg Schwarzenberger, "The Fundamental Principles of International Law, Recueil des Cours, vol. 1, 1955 (Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1956), 346. Also see Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, "The General Principles of International Law, considered from the Standpoint of the Rule of Law," Recueil des Cours, vol. 2, 1957 (Leyden: A.W. Sijthoff, 1958), 165n.
59. See Barry Feinstein, "Self-Defense and Israel in International Law: A Reappraisal," Israel Law Review 11 (October 1976): 522. Although scholars like Hall maintain that "almost the whole of the duties of states are subordinated to the right of self-preservation," many others agree with Schwarzenberger that "the mischievous notion of 'self-preservation' is overdue for elimination from the vocabulary of the international lawyer." See William Edward Hall, A Treatise on International Law (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1924), 322; and Georg Schwarzenberger, "The Fundamental Principles of International Law, Recueil des Cours, vol. 1, 1955 (Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1956), 346. Also see Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, "The General Principles of International Law, considered from the Standpoint of the Rule of Law," Recueil des Cours, vol. 2, 1957 (Leyden: A.W. Sijthoff, 1958), 165n.
60. See Barry Feinstein, "Self-Defense and Israel in International Law: A Reappraisal," Israel Law Review 11 (October 1976): 522. Although scholars like Hall maintain that "almost the whole of the duties of states are subordinated to the right of self-preservation," many others agree with Schwarzenberger that "the mischievous notion of 'self-preservation' is overdue for elimination from the vocabulary of the international lawyer." See William Edward Hall, A Treatise on International Law (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1924), 322; and Georg Schwarzenberger, "The Fundamental Principles of International Law, Recueil des Cours, vol. 1, 1955 (Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1956), 346. Also see Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, "The General Principles of International Law, considered from the Standpoint of the Rule of Law," Recueil des Cours, vol. 2, 1957 (Leyden: A.W. Sijthoff, 1958), 165n.
61. See Barry Feinstein, "Self-Defense and Israel in International Law: A Reappraisal," Israel Law Review 11 (October 1976): 522. Although scholars like Hall maintain that "almost the whole of the duties of states are subordinated to the right of self-preservation," many others agree with Schwarzenberger that "the mischievous notion of 'self-preservation' is overdue for elimination from the vocabulary of the international lawyer." See William Edward Hall, A Treatise on International Law (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1924), 322; and Georg Schwarzenberger, "The Fundamental Principles of International Law, Recueil des Cours, vol. 1, 1955 (Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1956), 346. Also see Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, "The General Principles of International Law, considered from the Standpoint of the Rule of Law," Recueil des Cours, vol. 2, 1957 (Leyden: A.W. Sijthoff, 1958), 165n.
62. Press conference on 25 October 1983, reprinted in U.S. Department of State, American Foreign Policy Current Documents (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1983), 1401. The references that follow are taken from speeches delivered between 25 March and 2 December 1983, as reported in U.S. President, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, 1984), Ronald Reagan, 1983, 1506, 1521, 1533, 1642.
63. Irving L. Janis, Crucial Decisions: Leadership in Policymaking and Crisis Management (New York: Free Press, 1989), 14-19.
64. See Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill 1991), 57-95.
65. Ole R. Holsti, "Crisis Decision Making" in Philip E. Tetlock, et al., eds., Behavior, Society, and Nuclear War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), vol. i, 38.
66. Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crises (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 254, 264-265. An example can be seen in the 4 April 1961 meeting of the National Security Council. When asked his opinion on the planned Bay of Pigs operation, Adolf Berle argued that a confrontation with the communists was inevitable, so it might as well be precipitated now. Trumbull Higgins, The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, Eisenhower, and the CIA at the Bay of Pigs (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987), 111.
67. Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crises (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 254, 264-265. An example can be seen in the 4 April 1961 meeting of the National Security Council. When asked his opinion on the planned Bay of Pigs operation, Adolf Berle argued that a confrontation with the communists was inevitable, so it might as well be precipitated now. Trumbull Higgins, The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, Eisenhower, and the CIA at the Bay of Pigs (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987), 111.
68. Robert C. Johansen, The National Interest and the Human Interest: An Analysis of U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 20. (Emphasis in original.) The argument from necessity is closely related to dilemmatization. Arguments from dilemmas involve claims based upon the warrant that a given situation allows for only two difficult choices. As a rhetorical tool, dilemmatic constructions aim to simplify a choice for some target audience, because the either/or conditional in the dichotomized representation is typically set up with unequal weights. See Rivka Ribak, "Divisive and Consensual Constructions in the Political Discourse of Jews and Palestinians in Israel: Dilemmas and Contradictions" (paper presented at the Third Convention of the International Society for the Study of Argumentation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 21-24 June 1994).
69. Robert C. Johansen, The National Interest and the Human Interest: An Analysis of U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), 20. (Emphasis in original.) The argument from necessity is closely related to dilemmatization. Arguments from dilemmas involve claims based upon the warrant that a given situation allows for only two difficult choices. As a rhetorical tool, dilemmatic constructions aim to simplify a choice for some target audience, because the either/or conditional in the dichotomized representation is typically set up with unequal weights. See Rivka Ribak, "Divisive and Consensual Constructions in the Political Discourse of Jews and Palestinians in Israel: Dilemmas and Contradictions" (paper presented at the Third Convention of the International Society for the Study of Argumentation, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 21-24 June 1994).
70. Robert Jervis, "War and Misperception" in Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb, eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 119; also see Paul 't Hart, Groupthink in Government: A Study of Small Groups and Policy Failure (Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1990).
71. Robert Jervis, "War and Misperception" in Robert I. Rotberg and Theodore K. Rabb, eds., The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 119; also see Paul 't Hart, Groupthink in Government: A Study of Small Groups and Policy Failure (Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger, 1990).
72. J. H. Elliott, "Managing Decline: Olivares and the Grand Strategy of Imperial Spain" in Paul Kennedy, ed., Grand Strategies in War and Peace (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 94.
73. Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962), 244-246. For a summary of the extensive body of research that indicates democracies rarely fight one another, see Steve Chan, "In Search of Democratic Peace: Problems and Promise," Mershon International Studies Review 41 (May 1997): 59-91.
74. Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962), 244-246. For a summary of the extensive body of research that indicates democracies rarely fight one another, see Steve Chan, "In Search of Democratic Peace: Problems and Promise," Mershon International Studies Review 41 (May 1997): 59-91.
75. George A. Quattrone and Amos Tversky, "Contrasting Rational and Psychological Analyses of Political Choice," American Political Science Review 82 (September 1988): 719-736.
76. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, 63. The importance of normative questions can be see in Robert Kennedy's recollection that in the Cuban missile crisis, U.S. decision makers spent more time on moral issues "during the first five days than on any other single matter." Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Norton, 1971), 17.
77. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, 63. The importance of normative questions can be see in Robert Kennedy's recollection that in the Cuban missile crisis, U.S. decision makers spent more time on moral issues "during the first five days than on any other single matter." Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Norton, 1971), 17.
78. Bruce M. Russett, Power and Community in World Politics (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1974), 216.
79. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, 60.