Responding to state failure in Africa

International Security

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 120-142

  Herbst, Jeffrey ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038553454     PISSN: 01622889     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2539275     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. See I.M. Lewis, "Pré- and Post-Colonial Forms of Polity in Africa," in I.M. Lewis, ed., Nationalism and Self Determination in the Horn of Africa (London: Ithaca Press, 1983), p. 74.
2. A. Adu Boahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 95.
3. Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York: Times Books, 1992), pp. 102-103.
4. Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
5. John Dugard, Recognition and the United Nations (Cambridge, U.K.: Grotius Publications, 1987), p. 7.
6. Robert H. Jackson, "Sub-Saharan Africa," in Robert H. Jackson and Alan James, eds., States in a Changing World: A Contemporary Analysis (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 139.
7. I have developed this argument in Jeffrey Herbst, "The Challenges to Africa's Boundaries," Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Summer 1992), pp. 17-31.
8. This point is made well by Julius K. Nyerere, Uhuru na Ujamaa (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 28 and 209.
9. William C. Thorn, "An Assessment of Prospects for Ending Domestic Military Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa," CSIS Africa Notes, No. 177 (October 1995), p. 3.
10. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, Gross National Product declined at an average rate of 0.8 percent from 1980 to 1993. World Bank, World Development Report 1995 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995), p. 163.
11. For instance, from 1962 to 1988, six countries - Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan, and Zaire - accounted for most U.S. foreign aid to Africa, despite their exceptionally poor economic and political performances. Indeed, all but Kenya can now be considered failed states despite American largesse. Michael Clough, Free at Last: U.S. Policy toward Africa and the End of the Cold War (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1992), p. 77.
12. Steven Metz, Reform, Conflict, and Security in Zaire (Carlisle, Penn.: U.S. Army War College, 1996), pp. 25, 35.
13. William Reno, "War, Markets and the Reconfiguration of West Africa's Weak States," unpublished paper, Florida International University, September 1995, p. 1.
14. North-South Roundtable, Revitalizing Africa for the 21st Century: An Agenda for Renewal (Rome: Society for International Development, 1995), p. 15.
15. I. William Zartman, "Putting Things Back Together," in I. William Zartman, ed., Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1995), p. 268.
16. Jackson, "Sub-Saharan Africa," p. 154.
17. Henrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems Change (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 186.
18. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995), p. 44.
19. "As OAU Moves into Peace-Keeping, Non-interference Concept is no Longer Sacrosanct," Africa Recovery, Vol. 9 (August 1995), p. 5.
20. Davidson, The Black Man's Burden, p. 315.
21. See Jack Goody, Technology, Tradition and the State in Africa (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1971), p. 30.
22. Igor Kopytoff, "The Internal African Frontier: The Making of African Political Culture," in Igor Kopytoff, ed., The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 10.
23. John Gerald Ruggie, "Continuity and Transformation in the World Polity: Towards a Neorealist Synthesis," World Politics, Vol. 35, No. 2 (January 1983), p. 274.
24. James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 36.
25. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 191-192.
26. Jan Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savannah (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), pp. 82.
27. F.H. Hinsley, Sovereignty, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 60.
28. Alan James, Sovereign Statehood: The Basis of International Society (London: Allen & Unwin, 1986), p. 31.
29. Among the many studies making this point, see S.I.G. Mudenge, A Political History of Munhumutapa, c. 1400-2902 (Harare: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988), p. 76.
30. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savannah, p. 247.
31. Robert Smith, Kingdoms of the Yoruba, 3rd ed. (London: James Currey, 1988), p. 99.
32. See Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 1-2.
33. Lord Hailey, An African Survey (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), pp. 539-540.
34. Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century, p. 12.
35. Joseph R. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), pp. 105-106.
36. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), p. 278.
37. See generally Robert H. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), pp. 31-33.
38. Patrick Conway and Joshua Greene, "Is Africa Different?" World Development, Vol. 21, No. 12 (December 1993), p. 2025.
39. See the critique of the latest World Bank report on Africa by Paul Mosley, Turan Subasat, and John Weeks, "Assessing Adjustment in Africa," World Development, Vol. 23, No. 9 (September 1995), pp. 1459-1473.
40. Alfred Taban, "Letter on Self-Determination," Reuters, November 12, 1995. The quotation is from an open letter sent by five leading politicians, including former Vice President Abel Alier, to the government of Sudan.
41. Club du Sahel, Preparing for the Future: A Vision of West Africa in the Year 2020 (Paris: Club du Sahel, 1995), p. 47.
42. Hans-Werner Sinn, "The Sahel Problem," Kyklos, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1988), pp. 209-210.
43. World Bank, African Development Indicators 1996 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996), p. 315.
44. Violet Maraisane, "Lesotho: Southern African Nation Ponders its Future," Inter Press Service, December 14, 1995.
45. These tests, and others, are proposed for recognition of a new state by Morton H. Halperin and David J. Scheffer with Patricia L. Small, Self-Determination in the New World Order (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1992), pp. 84-94.
46. Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993), p. 26.
47. Matt Bryden, "Somaliland at the Cross-Roads," found at the NomadNet home page: http://www.users.interport.net/~mmaren/brysomland.html, April 1996, p. 3.
48. Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1995), p. 187.
49. John Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia? (London: HAAN Associates, 1994), p. 147.
50. See the report by consultants from the London School of Economics and Political Science, A Study of Decentralised Political Structures for Somalia: A Menu of Options (London: London School of Economics and Political Science, 1995).
51. This is suggested by Gottlieb, Nation against State, p. 39.
52. See William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 128-182.
53. The relevant U.S. laws are cited in Committee on Foreign Affairs, International Narcotics Control and United States Foreign Policy: A Compilation of Laws, Treaties, Executive Documents and Relevant Materials, U.S. House of Representatives, December 1994, p. 31. The presidential message decertifying Nigeria can be found in ibid., p. 543.
54. The relevant U.S. laws are cited in Committee on Foreign Affairs, International Narcotics Control and United States Foreign Policy: A Compilation of Laws, Treaties, Executive Documents and Relevant Materials, U.S. House of Representatives, December 1994, p. 31. The presidential message decertifying Nigeria can be found in ibid., p. 543.