Teacher Learning and the Mathematics Reforms What We Think We Know and What We Need to Learn

Phi Delta Kappan

Volumn 78, Issue MAR, 1996, Pages 500-508

  Ball, Deborah Loewenberg ^a  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 0038478010     PISSN: 00317217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (57)

1. See Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989); Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991); National Research Council, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future of Mathematics Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991); idem, Measuring Up: Prototypes for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); and idem, Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993). Readers should also see the mathematics frameworks of such states as California and South Carolina.
2. See Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989); Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991); National Research Council, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future of Mathematics Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991); idem, Measuring Up: Prototypes for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); and idem, Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993). Readers should also see the mathematics frameworks of such states as California and South Carolina.
3. See Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989); Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991); National Research Council, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future of Mathematics Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991); idem, Measuring Up: Prototypes for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); and idem, Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993). Readers should also see the mathematics frameworks of such states as California and South Carolina.
4. See Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989); Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991); National Research Council, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future of Mathematics Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991); idem, Measuring Up: Prototypes for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); and idem, Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993). Readers should also see the mathematics frameworks of such states as California and South Carolina.
5. See Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989); Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics (Reston, Va.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1991); National Research Council, Everybody Counts: A Report to the Nation on the Future of Mathematics Education (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991); idem, Measuring Up: Prototypes for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993); and idem, Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993). Readers should also see the mathematics frameworks of such states as California and South Carolina.
6. Glenda Lappan et al., Connected Mathematics Project (Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, forthcoming); and Susan Jo Russell et al., "Learning Mathematics by Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Baton Rouge, La., November 1994.
7. Glenda Lappan et al., Connected Mathematics Project (Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, forthcoming); and Susan Jo Russell et al., "Learning Mathematics by Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Baton Rouge, La., November 1994.
8. In 1993 the U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee mandated that the Department of Education and the National Science Foundation "increase teacher training activities" between 1993 and 1998 to provide "intensive pedagogical and disciplinary training" in mathematics and science to 600,000 elementary teachers. The agencies were also to ensure that the professional development provided was systematic, of high quality, based on research, and consistent with reforms. This article initially grew out of my skeptical (though sympathetic) reaction to this Senate action.
9. See Suzanne M. Wilson et al., "Learning by All," p. 468, this Kappan; and David K. Cohen and Carol A. Barnes, "Pedagogy and Policy: A New Pedagogy for Policy," in David K. Cohen, Milbrey W. McLaughlin, and Joan E. Talbert, eds., Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993), pp. 207-76. The notion that policy making and reform are central to teaching and learning has been at the heart of our work on the Education Policy and Practice Study at Michigan State University and the University of Michigan.
10. See Suzanne M. Wilson et al., "Learning by All," p. 468, this Kappan; and David K. Cohen and Carol A. Barnes, "Pedagogy and Policy: A New Pedagogy for Policy," in David K. Cohen, Milbrey W. McLaughlin, and Joan E. Talbert, eds., Teaching for Understanding: Challenges for Policy and Practice (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993), pp. 207-76. The notion that policy making and reform are central to teaching and learning has been at the heart of our work on the Education Policy and Practice Study at Michigan State University and the University of Michigan.
11. In this article I make no attempt to cite all the studies and programs that have contributed to the body of ideas on teacher learning. I have drawn heavily on articles in the field; on my experience reviewing proposals for the NCTM, the National Science Foundation, and the American Educational Research Association; and on the 1994 NCTM Yearbook on Professional Development for Teachers of Mathematics. I have also listened to fellow teacher educators.
12. See, for example, Lauren Pfeiffer, "Safety, Trust, and Care in Learning from Experience" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1996); Nora Toney, "Facing Racism in Mathematics Education," in Deborah Schifter, ed., What's Happening in Math Class? Volume 2: Reconstructing Professional Identities (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), pp. 26-35; and Julian Weisglass, "Changing Mathematics Teaching Means Changing Ourselves: Implications for Professional Development," in D. B. Aichele, ed., Professional Development for Teachers of Mathematics: 57th Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1994), pp. 67-78.
13. See, for example, Lauren Pfeiffer, "Safety, Trust, and Care in Learning from Experience" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1996); Nora Toney, "Facing Racism in Mathematics Education," in Deborah Schifter, ed., What's Happening in Math Class? Volume 2: Reconstructing Professional Identities (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), pp. 26-35; and Julian Weisglass, "Changing Mathematics Teaching Means Changing Ourselves: Implications for Professional Development," in D. B. Aichele, ed., Professional Development for Teachers of Mathematics: 57th Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1994), pp. 67-78.
14. See, for example, Lauren Pfeiffer, "Safety, Trust, and Care in Learning from Experience" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1996); Nora Toney, "Facing Racism in Mathematics Education," in Deborah Schifter, ed., What's Happening in Math Class? Volume 2: Reconstructing Professional Identities (New York: Teachers College Press, 1996), pp. 26-35; and Julian Weisglass, "Changing Mathematics Teaching Means Changing Ourselves: Implications for Professional Development," in D. B. Aichele, ed., Professional Development for Teachers of Mathematics: 57th Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1994), pp. 67-78.
15. David Hawkins, "I, Thou, and It," in idem, ed., The Informed Vision: Essays on Learning and Human Nature (1967; reprint New York: Agathon, 1974), pp. 48-62. Hawkins argues that in any teaching situation there is a teacher, a learner, and the "it" around which they interact. Here it is crucial to remember that analysis of reform-oriented teaching is the "it" of professional development and must be part of our consideration of teacher learning.
16. Professional Standards, p. 35.
17. Daniel Chazan and Deborah Ball, Beyond Exhortations Not to Tell: The Teacher's Role in Discussion-Intensive Pedagogy (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 95-2); and Patrick Thompson and Alba G. Thompson, "Teaching About Rates Conceptually, Part II: Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching" Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 27, 1966, pp. 2-24.
18. Daniel Chazan and Deborah Ball, Beyond Exhortations Not to Tell: The Teacher's Role in Discussion-Intensive Pedagogy (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 95-2); and Patrick Thompson and Alba G. Thompson, "Teaching About Rates Conceptually, Part II: Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching" Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 27, 1966, pp. 2-24.
19. Lee S. Shulman, "Autonomy and Obligation: The Remote Control of Teaching," in Lee S. Shulman and Gary Sykes, eds., Handbook of Teaching and Policy (New York: Longman, 1983), pp. 484-504.
20. Magdalene Lampert, "How Do Teachers Manage to Teach? Perspectives on Dilemmas in Practice," Harvard Educational Review, vol. 55, 1985, pp. 178-94.
21. As part of my research, I teach elementary school mathematics on a daily basis. The episode I relate here occurred in my third-grade class during the 1989-90 school year. The data on which I am drawing were gathered as part of an NSF project that involved documenting the mathematics teaching and learning across the entire school year in my class and in the fifth-grade class of my colleague, Magdalene Lampert. The teacher in whose classroom I was working was Sylvia Rundquist. (For a description and examination of our four-year collaboration, see Deborah Loewenberg Ball and Sylvia Rundquist, "Collaboration as a Context for Joining Teacher Learning with Learning About Teaching," in Cohen, McLaughlin, and Talbert, pp. 13-42.
22. This example is discussed in more detail in Deborah Loewenberg Ball and Suzanne M. Wilson, "Integrity in Teaching: How Do the Knowledge and Moral Dimensions Interact?," American Educational Research Journal, in press.
23. I discuss this issue in more detail in Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Magical Hopes: Manipulatives and the Reform of Mathematics Education," American Educator, Summer 1992, pp. 14-18, 46-47.
24. See, for example, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Unlearning to Teach Mathematics," For the Learning of Mathematics, vol. 8, 1988, pp. 40-48; Hilda M. Borko et al., "Learning to Teach Hard Mathematics: Do Novice Teachers and Their Instructors Give Up Too Easily?," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 2, 1992, pp. 141-78; Catherine A. Brown and Hilda Borko, "Becoming a Mathematics Teacher," in Douglas A. Grouws, ed., Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 209-39; Deborah Schifter, Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993); and Martin A. Simon, "Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Division," Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 24, 1993, pp. 233-54.
25. See, for example, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Unlearning to Teach Mathematics," For the Learning of Mathematics, vol. 8, 1988, pp. 40-48; Hilda M. Borko et al., "Learning to Teach Hard Mathematics: Do Novice Teachers and Their Instructors Give Up Too Easily?," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 2, 1992, pp. 141-78; Catherine A. Brown and Hilda Borko, "Becoming a Mathematics Teacher," in Douglas A. Grouws, ed., Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 209-39; Deborah Schifter, Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993); and Martin A. Simon, "Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Division," Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 24, 1993, pp. 233-54.
26. See, for example, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Unlearning to Teach Mathematics," For the Learning of Mathematics, vol. 8, 1988, pp. 40-48; Hilda M. Borko et al., "Learning to Teach Hard Mathematics: Do Novice Teachers and Their Instructors Give Up Too Easily?," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 2, 1992, pp. 141-78; Catherine A. Brown and Hilda Borko, "Becoming a Mathematics Teacher," in Douglas A. Grouws, ed., Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 209-39; Deborah Schifter, Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993); and Martin A. Simon, "Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Division," Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 24, 1993, pp. 233-54.
27. See, for example, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Unlearning to Teach Mathematics," For the Learning of Mathematics, vol. 8, 1988, pp. 40-48; Hilda M. Borko et al., "Learning to Teach Hard Mathematics: Do Novice Teachers and Their Instructors Give Up Too Easily?," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 2, 1992, pp. 141-78; Catherine A. Brown and Hilda Borko, "Becoming a Mathematics Teacher," in Douglas A. Grouws, ed., Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 209-39; Deborah Schifter, Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993); and Martin A. Simon, "Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Division," Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 24, 1993, pp. 233-54.
28. See, for example, Deborah Loewenberg Ball, "Unlearning to Teach Mathematics," For the Learning of Mathematics, vol. 8, 1988, pp. 40-48; Hilda M. Borko et al., "Learning to Teach Hard Mathematics: Do Novice Teachers and Their Instructors Give Up Too Easily?," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 2, 1992, pp. 141-78; Catherine A. Brown and Hilda Borko, "Becoming a Mathematics Teacher," in Douglas A. Grouws, ed., Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning (New York: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 209-39; Deborah Schifter, Reconstructing Mathematics Education: Stories of Teachers Meeting the Challenge of Reform (New York: Teachers College Press, 1993); and Martin A. Simon, "Prospective Elementary Teachers' Knowledge of Division," Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, vol. 24, 1993, pp. 233-54.
29. John P. Smith, "Efficacy and Teaching Mathematics by Telling: A Challenge for Reform," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, in press; and Dan C. Lortie, Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
30. John P. Smith, "Efficacy and Teaching Mathematics by Telling: A Challenge for Reform," Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, in press; and Dan C. Lortie, Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975).
31. Several poignant and profound examples exist in the literature. See Ruth M. Heaton, "Creating and Studying a Practice of Teaching Elementary Mathematics for Understanding" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1994). Heaton writes of her own struggles to delve into what she had previously considered simple mathematical ideas. Sylvia Rundquist also describes how vulnerable she felt in confronting her own confusions and how personally risky it was to write about the experience; see Ball and Rundquist, op. cit.
32. Several poignant and profound examples exist in the literature. See Ruth M. Heaton, "Creating and Studying a Practice of Teaching Elementary Mathematics for Understanding" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1994). Heaton writes of her own struggles to delve into what she had previously considered simple mathematical ideas. Sylvia Rundquist also describes how vulnerable she felt in confronting her own confusions and how personally risky it was to write about the experience; see Ball and Rundquist, op. cit.
33. Other examples can be found in Deborah Schifter, Constructing New Practices/ Reconstructing Professional Identities (New York: Teachers College Press, 1995); and idem, Voicing the New Pedagogy (New York: Teachers College Press, 1995).
34. Other examples can be found in Deborah Schifter, Constructing New Practices/ Reconstructing Professional Identities (New York: Teachers College Press, 1995); and idem, Voicing the New Pedagogy (New York: Teachers College Press, 1995).
35. See Magdalene Lampert and Angle S. Eshelman, "Using Technology to Support Effective and Responsible Teacher Education: The Case of Interactive Multimedia in Mathematics Methods Courses," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, April 1995.
36. Gary D Fenstermacher, "The Concepts of Method and Manner in Teaching," in Fritz Oser, Andreas Dick, and Jean-Luc Parry, eds., Effective and Responsible Teaching: The New Synthesis (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992), pp. 95-108.
37. Judith Warren Little, 'Teachers' Professional Development in a Climate of Educational Reform," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol. 15, 1993, pp. 129-51; Brian Lord, "Teachers' Professional Development: Critical Colleagueship and the Role of Professional Communities," in Nina Cobb, ed., The Future of Education: Perspectives on National Standards in America (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1994), pp. 175-204; and Dennis Sparks and Susan Loucks-Horsley, "Models of Staff Development," in W. Robert Houston, ed., Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 234-50.
38. Judith Warren Little, 'Teachers' Professional Development in a Climate of Educational Reform," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol. 15, 1993, pp. 129-51; Brian Lord, "Teachers' Professional Development: Critical Colleagueship and the Role of Professional Communities," in Nina Cobb, ed., The Future of Education: Perspectives on National Standards in America (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1994), pp. 175-204; and Dennis Sparks and Susan Loucks-Horsley, "Models of Staff Development," in W. Robert Houston, ed., Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 234-50.
39. Judith Warren Little, 'Teachers' Professional Development in a Climate of Educational Reform," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, vol. 15, 1993, pp. 129-51; Brian Lord, "Teachers' Professional Development: Critical Colleagueship and the Role of Professional Communities," in Nina Cobb, ed., The Future of Education: Perspectives on National Standards in America (New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1994), pp. 175-204; and Dennis Sparks and Susan Loucks-Horsley, "Models of Staff Development," in W. Robert Houston, ed., Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (New York: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 234-50.
40. I would like to acknowledge Daniel Chazan for helping me see this underside of the individualistic culture of teaching.
41. Little, p. 143.
42. David Tyack and William Tobin, "The 'Grammar' of Schooling: Why Has It Been So Hard to Change?," American Educational Research Journal, vol. 31, 1994, pp. 453-79.
43. Ann L. Brown, "The Advancement of Learning," Educational Researcher, November 1994, pp. 4-12; Helen Featherstone, Lauren Pfeiffer, and Stephen P. Smith, Learning in Good Company: Report on a Pilot Study (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 93-2, 1993); Helen Featherstone et al., "Could You Say More About That? A Conversation About the Development of a Group's Investigation of Mathematics Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, April 1993; and M. A. Simon and Deborah Schifter, "Towards a Constructivist Perspective: An Intervention Study of Mathematics Teacher Development," Educational Studies in Mathematics, vol. 22, 1991, pp. 309-31.
44. Ann L. Brown, "The Advancement of Learning," Educational Researcher, November 1994, pp. 4-12; Helen Featherstone, Lauren Pfeiffer, and Stephen P. Smith, Learning in Good Company: Report on a Pilot Study (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 93-2, 1993); Helen Featherstone et al., "Could You Say More About That? A Conversation About the Development of a Group's Investigation of Mathematics Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, April 1993; and M. A. Simon and Deborah Schifter, "Towards a Constructivist Perspective: An Intervention Study of Mathematics Teacher Development," Educational Studies in Mathematics, vol. 22, 1991, pp. 309-31.
45. Ann L. Brown, "The Advancement of Learning," Educational Researcher, November 1994, pp. 4-12; Helen Featherstone, Lauren Pfeiffer, and Stephen P. Smith, Learning in Good Company: Report on a Pilot Study (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 93-2, 1993); Helen Featherstone et al., "Could You Say More About That? A Conversation About the Development of a Group's Investigation of Mathematics Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, April 1993; and M. A. Simon and Deborah Schifter, "Towards a Constructivist Perspective: An Intervention Study of Mathematics Teacher Development," Educational Studies in Mathematics, vol. 22, 1991, pp. 309-31.
46. Ann L. Brown, "The Advancement of Learning," Educational Researcher, November 1994, pp. 4-12; Helen Featherstone, Lauren Pfeiffer, and Stephen P. Smith, Learning in Good Company: Report on a Pilot Study (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Research Report 93-2, 1993); Helen Featherstone et al., "Could You Say More About That? A Conversation About the Development of a Group's Investigation of Mathematics Teaching," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, April 1993; and M. A. Simon and Deborah Schifter, "Towards a Constructivist Perspective: An Intervention Study of Mathematics Teacher Development," Educational Studies in Mathematics, vol. 22, 1991, pp. 309-31.
47. Lappan et al., op. cit.; Susan Jo Russell and Andee Rubin, Investigations in Number, Data, and Space (Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, 1994); and Joan Ferrini-Mundy, "Reform Efforts in Mathematics Education: Reckoning with the Realities," paper presented at the NSF conference on Teacher Enhancement in Mathematics K-6, Arlington, Va., November 1994.
48. Lappan et al., op. cit.; Susan Jo Russell and Andee Rubin, Investigations in Number, Data, and Space (Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, 1994); and Joan Ferrini-Mundy, "Reform Efforts in Mathematics Education: Reckoning with the Realities," paper presented at the NSF conference on Teacher Enhancement in Mathematics K-6, Arlington, Va., November 1994.
49. Lappan et al., op. cit.; Susan Jo Russell and Andee Rubin, Investigations in Number, Data, and Space (Palo Alto, Calif.: Dale Seymour Publications, 1994); and Joan Ferrini-Mundy, "Reform Efforts in Mathematics Education: Reckoning with the Realities," paper presented at the NSF conference on Teacher Enhancement in Mathematics K-6, Arlington, Va., November 1994.
50. Janine Remillard, "Changing Texts, Teachers, and Teaching: The Role of Curriculum Materials in Mathematics Education Reform" (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1996).
51. See, for example, the Renaissance Project in California, discussed by Kris Acquarelli and Judith Mumme in "A Renaissance in Mathematics Education Reform," page 478, this Kappan.
52. I draw here on my work with Magdalene Lampert, Kara Suzuka, Ruth Heaton, Angie Eshelman, and Mark Rosenberg, in which we have been investigating the use in teacher education of primary source materials from Lampert's and my elementary classrooms. See Magdalene Lampert and Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Using Hypermedia Technology to Support a New Pedagogy of Teacher Education (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Issue Paper 90-5, 1990); and Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Magdalene Lampert, and Mark Rosenberg, "Using Hypermedia to Investigate and Construct Knowledge About Mathematics Teaching and Learning," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, April 1991.
53. I draw here on my work with Magdalene Lampert, Kara Suzuka, Ruth Heaton, Angie Eshelman, and Mark Rosenberg, in which we have been investigating the use in teacher education of primary source materials from Lampert's and my elementary classrooms. See Magdalene Lampert and Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Using Hypermedia Technology to Support a New Pedagogy of Teacher Education (East Lansing: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning, Michigan State University, Issue Paper 90-5, 1990); and Deborah Loewenberg Ball, Magdalene Lampert, and Mark Rosenberg, "Using Hypermedia to Investigate and Construct Knowledge About Mathematics Teaching and Learning," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, April 1991.
54. Ferrini-Mundy, op. cit.
55. Gary Sykes and Tom Bird, "Teacher Education and the Case Idea," in Gerald Grant, ed., Review of Research in Education, vol. 18 (Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association, 1992), pp. 457-521; and Judy Shulman, Case Methods in Teacher Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992).
56. Gary Sykes and Tom Bird, "Teacher Education and the Case Idea," in Gerald Grant, ed., Review of Research in Education, vol. 18 (Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research Association, 1992), pp. 457-521; and Judy Shulman, Case Methods in Teacher Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992).
57. I am grateful to Suzanne Wilson for pointing out this notable parallel, as well as for sharing much other wisdom about teacher learning - her own, mine, and others'.