Equilibrium theory revisited: Mutual gaze and personal space in virtual environments

Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments

Volumn 10, Issue 6, 2001, Pages 583-598

  Bailenson, Jeremy N ^a   Blascovich, Jim ^a   Beall, Andrew C ^a   Loomis, Jack M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0038421876     PISSN: 10547460     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/105474601753272844     Document Type: Article

References (54)

1. Adler, L. L., & Iverson, M. A. (1974). Interpersonal distance as a function of task difficulty, praise, status orientation, and sex of partner. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 39, 683-692.
2. Aiello, J. R. (1977). A further look at equilibrium theory: Visual interaction as a function of interpersonal distance. Environmental Psychology & Nonverbal Behavior, 1, 122-140.
3. Argyle, M. (1988). Bodily Communication (2nd ed.). London: Methuen.
4. Argyle, M., & Cook, M. (1976). Gaze and Mutual Gaze. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5. Argyle, M., & Dean, J. (1965). Eye-contact, distance and affiliation. Sociometry, 28, 289-304.
6. Argyle, M., Lefebvre, L., & Cook, M. (1974). The meaning of five patterns of gaze. European Journal of Social Psychology, 4, 125-136.
7. nd ed., vol. II.) (pp. 1-79). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
8. Badler, N. I., Chi, D., & Chopra, S. (1999). Virtual human animation based on movement observations and cognitive behavior models. Proceedings of SIGGRAPH'99, 1-17.
9. Biocca, F., & Levy, M. (1995). Communication in the Age of Virtual Reality. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: Hillsdale, NJ.
10. Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A., Swinth, K., Hoyt, C., & Bailenson, J. N. (In press). Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry.
11. Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., & Salomon, K. (1999). Social "facilitation" as challenge and threat. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 77, 68-77.
12. Cassel, J., & Thorisson, K. R. (1998). The power of a nod and a glance: Envelope vs. emotional feedback in animated conversational agents. Journal of Applied Artificial Intelligence, 13, 519-538.
13. Chapman, A. (1975). Eye contact, physical proximity and laughter: A re-examination of the equilibrium model of social intimacy. Social Behavior & Personality, 3, 143-155.
14. Cohen, J., & Cohen, R. (1983). Applied Multiple Regression/ Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
15. DeFanti, T. (2000). Better than being there: Next millennium networks. IEEE, 20, 60-63.
16. Dittmann, A. T., & Llewellyn, L. G. (1969). Body movement and speech rhythm in social conversation. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 11, 98-106.
17. Evans, G. W., & Howard, R. B. (1973). Personal space. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 334-344.
18. Freeman, J., Avons, S. E., Meddis, R., Pearson, D. E., & IJsselsteijn, W. (2000). Using behavioral realism to estimate presence: A study of the utility of postural responses to motion stimuli. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 149-164.
19. Guye-Vuillieme, A., Capin, T. K., Pandzic, I. S., Thalmann, N. M., & Thalmann, D. (1999). Non-verbal communication interface for collaborative virtual environments. The Virtual Reality Journal, 4, 49-59.
20. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. NY: Doubleday.
21. _. (1966). The Hidden Dimension. NY: Doubleday.
22. Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences: Accuracy of communication and expressive style. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
23. Hayduk, L. A. (1981). The shape of personal space: An experimental investigation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 13, 87-93.
24. _. (1983). Personal space: Where we now stand. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 293-335.
25. Henley, N. M. (1977). Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
26. Hoyt, C. (1999). Social facilitation in virtual environments: A new methodological tool for social psychologists. Unpublished masters thesis. [Instr.] University of California, Santa Barbara.
27. Isbister, K., & Nass, C. (2000). Consistency of personality in interactive characters: Verbal cues, non-verbal cues, and user characteristics. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 53, 251-267.
28. Jenni, D. A., & Jenni, M. A. (1976). Carrying behavior in humans: Analysis of sex differences. Science, 194, 859-860.
29. Krikorian, D. H., Lee, J., Chock, T. M., & Harms, C. (2000). Isn't that spatial?: Distance and communication in a 2-D virtual environment. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication [online], 4. www.ascusc.ort/jcmc/vol5/issue4/ krikorian.htm.
30. Little, K. B. (1965). Personal space. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1, 237-247.
31. Loomis, J., Blascovich, J., & Beall, A. (1999). Immersive virtual environment technology as a basic research tool in psychology. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 557-564.
32. Massaro, D. W. (1998). Perceiving Talking Faces: From speech perception to a behavioral principle. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
33. McBride, G., King, M. G., & James, J. W. (1965). Social proximity effects on galvanic skin responses in adult humans. Journal of Psychology, 61, 153-157.
34. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
35. Nowak, K. (2000). The Influence of Anthropomorphism on Mental Models of Agents and Avatars in Social Virtual Environments. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Department of Telecommunication, Michigan State University.
36. Patterson, M. L. (1976). An arousal model of interpersonal intimacy. Psychological Review, 83, 235-245.
37. _. (1982). A sequential functional model of nonverbal exchange. Psychological Review, 89, 231-249.
38. _. (1995). Invited article: A parallel process model of nonverbal communication. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 19, 3-29.
39. Patterson, M. L., & Webb, A. (in press). Passing encounters: Patterns of recognition and avoidance in pedestrians. Basic and Applied Social Psychology.
40. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equation: How people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places. New York: Cambridge University Press.
41. Rosegrant, T. S., & McCroskey, J. C. (1975). The effects of race and sex on proxemic behavior in an interview setting. The Southern Speech Communication Journal, 40, 408-420.
42. Rosenfeld, H. M., Breck, B. E., Smith, S. H., & Kehoe, S. (1984). Intimacy-mediators of the proximity-gaze compensation effect: Movement, conversational role, acquaintance, and gender. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 8, 235-249.
43. Sannier, G., & Thalmann, M. N. (1998). A user friendly texture-fitting methodology for virtual humans. Proceedings of the Computer Graphics International (CGI '97).
44. Scherer, S. E., & Schiff, M. R. (1973). Perceived intimacy, physical distance and eye contact. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 36, 835-841.
45. Slater, M., Sadagic, A., Usoh, M., & Schroeder, R. (2000). Small-group behavior in a virtual and real environment. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9, 37-51.
46. Sodikoff, C. L., Firestone, I. J., & Kaplan, K. J. (1974). Distance matching and distance equilibrium in the interview dyad. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1, 243-245.
47. Sommer, R. (1959). On writing "little papers." American Psychologist, 14, 235-237.
48. Stafford, L., Kline, S. L., & Dimmick, J. (1999). Home e-mail: Relational maintenance and gratification opportunities. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 43, 659-669.
49. Swinth, K. (2000). Risk-taking and conformity in immersive virtual environments. Unpublished masters thesis, University of California, Santa Barbara.
50. Valentine, M. E., & Ehrlichman, H. (1979). Interpersonal gaze and helping behavior. Journal of Social Psychology, 107, 193-198.
51. Waller, D. A. (in press). Individual differences in spatial learning in computer simulated environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied.
52. Watson, O. M. (1970). Proxemic behavior: A cross-cultural study. The Hague: Mouton.
53. Willis, F. N., Jr. (1966). Initial speaking distance as a function of the speakers' relationship. Psychonomic Science, 5, 221-222.
54. Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.