Epidemiologists explain pellagra: Gender, race, and political economy in the work of Edgar Sydenstricker

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 58, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 34-55

  Marks, Harry M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

African Americans; Edgar Sydenstricker; Epidemiology; Gender; Joseph Goldberger; Pellagra; Race

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; ECONOMICS; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MALE; NEGRO; PELLAGRA; POVERTY; SEX DIFFERENCE; UNITED STATES;

AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; CULTURE; FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MALE; PELLAGRA; POVERTY; SEX FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0038013856     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/58.1.34     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Textile-Mill Communities of South Carolina," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 648-709; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Pellagra Incidence in Relation to Sex, Age, Season, Occupation and 'Disabling Sickness' in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1650-64; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1701-14; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income and Other Economic Factors to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 2673-2714. A follow-up study, including additional villages, was published in 1929: Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, Edgar Sydenstricker, and Wilford I. King, A Study of Endemic Pellagra in Some Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina. U.S. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin no. 153 (Washington, D.C.: Hygienic Laboratory, 1929).
2. Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Textile-Mill Communities of South Carolina," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 648-709; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Pellagra Incidence in Relation to Sex, Age, Season, Occupation and 'Disabling Sickness' in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1650-64; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1701-14; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income and Other Economic Factors to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 2673-2714. A follow-up study, including additional villages, was published in 1929: Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, Edgar Sydenstricker, and Wilford I. King, A Study of Endemic Pellagra in Some Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina. U.S. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin no. 153 (Washington, D.C.: Hygienic Laboratory, 1929).
3. Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Textile-Mill Communities of South Carolina," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 648-709; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Pellagra Incidence in Relation to Sex, Age, Season, Occupation and 'Disabling Sickness' in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1650-64; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1701-14; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income and Other Economic Factors to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 2673-2714. A follow-up study, including additional villages, was published in 1929: Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, Edgar Sydenstricker, and Wilford I. King, A Study of Endemic Pellagra in Some Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina. U.S. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin no. 153 (Washington, D.C.: Hygienic Laboratory, 1929).
4. Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Textile-Mill Communities of South Carolina," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 648-709; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Pellagra Incidence in Relation to Sex, Age, Season, Occupation and 'Disabling Sickness' in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1650-64; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1701-14; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income and Other Economic Factors to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 2673-2714. A follow-up study, including additional villages, was published in 1929: Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, Edgar Sydenstricker, and Wilford I. King, A Study of Endemic Pellagra in Some Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina. U.S. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin no. 153 (Washington, D.C.: Hygienic Laboratory, 1929).
5. Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Textile-Mill Communities of South Carolina," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 648-709; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "Pellagra Incidence in Relation to Sex, Age, Season, Occupation and 'Disabling Sickness' in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1650-64; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 1701-14; Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, and Edgar Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income and Other Economic Factors to Pellagra Incidence in Seven Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina in 1916," Public Health Rep., 1920, 35, 2673-2714. A follow-up study, including additional villages, was published in 1929: Joseph Goldberger, G. A. Wheeler, Edgar Sydenstricker, and Wilford I. King, A Study of Endemic Pellagra in Some Cotton-Mill Villages of South Carolina. U.S. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin no. 153 (Washington, D.C.: Hygienic Laboratory, 1929).
6. Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income".
7. David L. Edsall to [Surgeon-]General Blue, 23 July 1917, Box 150, (1648), Central File, 1897-1923, U.S. Public Health Service (PHS), Record Group (RG) 90, National Archives (NA), College Park, Md.; Robert F. Korns and Peter Greenwald, "Commentary," in Richard V. Kasius, ed., The Challenge of Facts. Selected Public Health Papers of Edgar Sydenstricker (New York: Prodist, 1974), p. 250; Milton Terris, "Introduction," in idem, ed., Goldberger on Pellagra (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964), pp. 3-16.
8. David L. Edsall to [Surgeon-]General Blue, 23 July 1917, Box 150, (1648), Central File, 1897-1923, U.S. Public Health Service (PHS), Record Group (RG) 90, National Archives (NA), College Park, Md.; Robert F. Korns and Peter Greenwald, "Commentary," in Richard V. Kasius, ed., The Challenge of Facts. Selected Public Health Papers of Edgar Sydenstricker (New York: Prodist, 1974), p. 250; Milton Terris, "Introduction," in idem, ed., Goldberger on Pellagra (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964), pp. 3-16.
9. The Census Bureau did not began reporting pellagra deaths by race until 1914. Nonwhite deaths, largely if not exclusively African-American, account for 50.3% of the total, 1914-1940. United States, Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics [1914-1940] (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1916-1941). Because southern states were late in joining the official Death Registration Area, and because pellagra was concentrated in the South, this is surely an underestimate.
10. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
11. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
12. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
13. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
14. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
15. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
16. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
17. I take the term race ideology from Barbara Jeanne Fields, "Slavery, Race and Ideology in the United States of America," New Left Rev., 1990, 181, 95-118. For "conservative" analyses of tuberculosis, see Marion M. Torchia, "Tuberculosis among American Negroes: Medical Research on a Racial Disease, 1830-1950," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1977, 32, 252-79; Tera W. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom. Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors After the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), pp. 188-91. On the "progressive" campaigns against tuberculosis and other contagious diseases, see Stuart Galishoff, "Germs Know No Color Line: Black Health and Public Policy in Atlanta, 1900-1918," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 22-41; Donald Doyle, New Men, New Cities, New South. Atlanta, Nashville, Charleston, Mobile, 1860-1910 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), pp. 280-89; Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, pp. 203-17 (who emphasizes the repressive character of the initial public health regulations). I am deeply indebted to JoAnne Brown for the formulation adopted here, which sees both aspects of racialized thinking as complementary and active in shaping public health programs in the pre-1930 period. See JoAnne Brown, "The Color of Contagion: Germ Theory, Tuberculosis, and the Semantics of Segregation," paper presented to the Section on Medical History, Yale University, 2 November 1995; idem, "Matters of Life and Death: Chronic Illness and Political Culture in the United States, 1865-1945," unpublished manuscript.
18. Keith Wailoo, Dying, in the City of the Blues. Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). The public controversy over pellagra is discussed at length in Elizabeth W. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste. A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972).
19. Keith Wailoo, Dying, in the City of the Blues. Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). The public controversy over pellagra is discussed at length in Elizabeth W. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste. A Social History of Pellagra in the South (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Company, 1972).
20. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Policies and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880-1920," Am. Hist. Rev., 1990, 95, 1076-1108; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies. American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion. The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993).
21. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Policies and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880-1920," Am. Hist. Rev., 1990, 95, 1076-1108; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies. American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion. The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993).
22. Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Policies and the Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, 1880-1920," Am. Hist. Rev., 1990, 95, 1076-1108; Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies. American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Alisa Klaus, Every Child a Lion. The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993).
23. See Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect. Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), pp. 54-60; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like A Family. The Making of a Southern Cotton World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), pp. 150-51; J. Wayne Flynt, Poor But Proud. Alabama's Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), pp. 174-176.
24. See Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect. Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), pp. 54-60; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like A Family. The Making of a Southern Cotton World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), pp. 150-51; J. Wayne Flynt, Poor But Proud. Alabama's Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), pp. 174-176.
25. See Edward H. Beardsley, A History of Neglect. Health Care for Blacks and Mill Workers in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987), pp. 54-60; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, James Leloudis, Robert Korstad, Mary Murphy, Lu Ann Jones and Christopher B. Daly, Like A Family. The Making of a Southern Cotton World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), pp. 150-51; J. Wayne Flynt, Poor But Proud. Alabama's Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989), pp. 174-176.
26. That question is the subject of a longer work in progress, Harry M. Marks, "Invisible Deaths? Race and Gender in the Social History of Pellagra."
27. George H. Searcy, "An Epidemic of Acute Pellagra," Trans. Med. Assoc. Alabama, 1907, 387-92.
28. There were 99,420 deaths from pellagra in the official Death Registration Area between 1908. the first year in which pellagra deaths were officially reported, and 1940. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics [1908-1940] (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1910-1941). Like that for African-American deaths, this figure underestimates the real total, given that most Southern states joined the official U.S. Death Registration Area relatively late in the 1920s.
29. The higher estimate of 11.4:1 comes from Mississippi, which was thought to have unusually complete case reporting of pellagra. W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 713. The lower estimate comes from Lavinder's survey early in the epidemic. C. H. Lavinder, "The Prevalence and Geographic Distribution of Pellagra in the United States," Public Health Rep., 1912, 227, 2076-88. For a critical discussion of case-fatality estimates, see Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, pp. 8-18.
30. The higher estimate of 11.4:1 comes from Mississippi, which was thought to have unusually complete case reporting of pellagra. W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 713. The lower estimate comes from Lavinder's survey early in the epidemic. C. H. Lavinder, "The Prevalence and Geographic Distribution of Pellagra in the United States," Public Health Rep., 1912, 227, 2076-88. For a critical discussion of case-fatality estimates, see Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, pp. 8-18.
31. The higher estimate of 11.4:1 comes from Mississippi, which was thought to have unusually complete case reporting of pellagra. W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 713. The lower estimate comes from Lavinder's survey early in the epidemic. C. H. Lavinder, "The Prevalence and Geographic Distribution of Pellagra in the United States," Public Health Rep., 1912, 227, 2076-88. For a critical discussion of case-fatality estimates, see Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, pp. 8-18.
32. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 19-27, 49-52; Daphne A. Roe, A Plague of Corn. The Social History of Pellagra (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973). Kenneth and Virginia Kiple argue that widespread but undiagnosed pellagra was common among slaves. Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia H. Kiple, "Black Tongue and Black Men: Pellagra and Slavery in the Antebellum South," J. South. Hist., 1977, 43, 411-28.
33. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 19-27, 49-52; Daphne A. Roe, A Plague of Corn. The Social History of Pellagra (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973). Kenneth and Virginia Kiple argue that widespread but undiagnosed pellagra was common among slaves. Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia H. Kiple, "Black Tongue and Black Men: Pellagra and Slavery in the Antebellum South," J. South. Hist., 1977, 43, 411-28.
34. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 19-27, 49-52; Daphne A. Roe, A Plague of Corn. The Social History of Pellagra (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973). Kenneth and Virginia Kiple argue that widespread but undiagnosed pellagra was common among slaves. Kenneth F. Kiple and Virginia H. Kiple, "Black Tongue and Black Men: Pellagra and Slavery in the Antebellum South," J. South. Hist., 1977, 43, 411-28.
35. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 43, 49-51, 55-58. Earlier epidemiological surveys were aimed more narrowly at measuring the extent of the problem; see Lavinder, "Prevalence and Geographic Distribution."
36. Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 43, 49-51, 55-58. Earlier epidemiological surveys were aimed more narrowly at measuring the extent of the problem; see Lavinder, "Prevalence and Geographic Distribution."
37. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
38. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
39. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
40. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
41. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
42. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
43. Mortality comparisons from South Carolina, Board of Public Health, Annual Report, 1917-1920 (Columbia, S.C.: Board of Health, Board of Health, n.d.). On textiles in Spartanburg, see Writers Program, Works Progress Administration, A History of Spartanburg County (Spartanburg, S.C.: Band and White, 1940), p. 219; Walter Edgar, South Carolina. A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina, 1998), pp. 455-59. On corporate welfare work in Spartanburg, see ibid., p. 464; George Waldrep III, Politics of Hope and Fear: The Struggle for Community in the Industrial South. Ph.D. thesis, Duke University, 1996, p. 24; on physicians' cooperation, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On welfare work in mill villages more generally, see Hall et al., Like a Family, pp. 131-39.
44. Joseph Franklin Siler, [Discussion], Trans. Med. Assoc. State Ala., 1914, 254-60, p. 257.
45. C. C. Parrish, "Discussion Pellagra Symposium," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 40.
46. See J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, and W. J. MacNeal, Pellagra. Third Progress Report of the Thompson-MCFadden Commission (n.p., 1916), pp. 22-25; James W. Jobling and William F. Petersen, "The Epidemiology of Pellagra in Nashville, Tennessee. II," J. Infect. Dis., 1917, 21, 124.
47. See J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, and W. J. MacNeal, Pellagra. Third Progress Report of the Thompson-MCFadden Commission (n.p., 1916), pp. 22-25; James W. Jobling and William F. Petersen, "The Epidemiology of Pellagra in Nashville, Tennessee. II," J. Infect. Dis., 1917, 21, 124.
48. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
49. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
50. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
51. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
52. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
53. See G.H. Wood, "Pellagra Status in Panola County, Mississippi, with Remarks on Etiology and Treatment," South. Med. J., 1915, 8, 662-66; J. F. Siler, P. E. Garrison, W. J. MacNeal, "Prognosis in Pellagra. A Preliminary Note," Proc. N. Y. Pathol. Soc., 1915, 15, 32; E. H. Galloway, "Pellagra in Mississippi," South. Med. J. 1915, 8, 691-92; W. A. Dearman, "Pellagra," 713. For an unusual counter-example that emphasized the threat to whites, see W. Atmar Smith, R.M. Politzer, and Harry S. Mustard, "Pellagra in Charleston, S.C.," South. Med. J., 1916, 9, 786-790. Occasionally, researchers explained low local rates of pellagra among African-Americans with reference to a possible "racial immunity." See E. Mack Parrish, "Epidemiology of Pellagra," Texas State J. Med., 1916, 12, 179.
54. On Goldberger's career and early pellagra work, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 65-81.
55. The sanitary surveys are discussed in Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Factors of a Sanitary Character to Pellagra Incidence," 1701-14.
56. For an overview of Sydenstricker's career, see Dorothy G. Wiehl, "Edgar Sydenstricker - A Memoir," in Kasius, The Challenge of Facts, pp. 3-17. On the politics of the Commission on Industrial Relations, see Mary O. Furner, "Knowing Capitalism: Public Investigation and the Labor Question in the Long Progressive Era," in Mary O. Furner and Barry Supple, eds. The State and Economic Knowledge. The American and British Experiences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 274-84; James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 186-208.
57. For an overview of Sydenstricker's career, see Dorothy G. Wiehl, "Edgar Sydenstricker - A Memoir," in Kasius, The Challenge of Facts, pp. 3-17. On the politics of the Commission on Industrial Relations, see Mary O. Furner, "Knowing Capitalism: Public Investigation and the Labor Question in the Long Progressive Era," in Mary O. Furner and Barry Supple, eds. The State and Economic Knowledge. The American and British Experiences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 274-84; James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 186-208.
58. For an overview of Sydenstricker's career, see Dorothy G. Wiehl, "Edgar Sydenstricker - A Memoir," in Kasius, The Challenge of Facts, pp. 3-17. On the politics of the Commission on Industrial Relations, see Mary O. Furner, "Knowing Capitalism: Public Investigation and the Labor Question in the Long Progressive Era," in Mary O. Furner and Barry Supple, eds. The State and Economic Knowledge. The American and British Experiences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 274-84; James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), pp. 186-208.
59. Welfare Activities of Communities. Report to September 1, 1914, Box 4, U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, R G 174, NA.
60. Conditions of Labor in the Principal Industries, Box 11. Sydenstricker repeatedly explores ways to lower the cost of food - promotion of regional agriculture, municipal gardens, etc. See Welfare Activities of Communities, Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities, Box 4. All in U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
61. Conditions of Labor in the Principal Industries, Box 11. Sydenstricker repeatedly explores ways to lower the cost of food - promotion of regional agriculture, municipal gardens, etc. See Welfare Activities of Communities, Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities, Box 4. All in U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
62. Conditions of Labor in the Principal Industries, Box 11. Sydenstricker repeatedly explores ways to lower the cost of food - promotion of regional agriculture, municipal gardens, etc. See Welfare Activities of Communities, Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities, Box 4. All in U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
63. Conditions of Labor in the Principal Industries, Box 11. Sydenstricker repeatedly explores ways to lower the cost of food - promotion of regional agriculture, municipal gardens, etc. See Welfare Activities of Communities, Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities, Box 4. All in U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
64. Conditions of Labor in the Principal Industries, Box 11. Sydenstricker repeatedly explores ways to lower the cost of food - promotion of regional agriculture, municipal gardens, etc. See Welfare Activities of Communities, Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities, Box 4. All in U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, U.S. Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
65. W. Jett Lauck and Edgar Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor in American Industries (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 28, pp. 244-45. On the family wage and related concepts, see Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies, 1982, 8, 399-424; Eileen Boris, "Reconstructing the 'Family': Women, Progressive Reform, and the Problem of Social Control," in Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), pp. 73-86; Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage, Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), pp. 6-32.
66. W. Jett Lauck and Edgar Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor in American Industries (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 28, pp. 244-45. On the family wage and related concepts, see Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies, 1982, 8, 399-424; Eileen Boris, "Reconstructing the 'Family': Women, Progressive Reform, and the Problem of Social Control," in Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), pp. 73-86; Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage, Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), pp. 6-32.
67. W. Jett Lauck and Edgar Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor in American Industries (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 28, pp. 244-45. On the family wage and related concepts, see Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies, 1982, 8, 399-424; Eileen Boris, "Reconstructing the 'Family': Women, Progressive Reform, and the Problem of Social Control," in Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), pp. 73-86; Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage, Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), pp. 6-32.
68. W. Jett Lauck and Edgar Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor in American Industries (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 28, pp. 244-45. On the family wage and related concepts, see Martha May, "The Historical Problem of the Family Wage: The Ford Motor Company and the Five Dollar Day," Feminist Studies, 1982, 8, 399-424; Eileen Boris, "Reconstructing the 'Family': Women, Progressive Reform, and the Problem of Social Control," in Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye, eds. Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991), pp. 73-86; Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage, Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1990), pp. 6-32.
69. Hamilton Cravens, "The German-American Science of Racial Nutrition, 1870-1920," in Hamilton Cravens, Alan I. Marcus, and David M. Katzman, Technical Knowledge in American Culture (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1996), pp. 127-45. As Cravens emphasizes, there was a substantial interest in ethnic ("racial") differences in dietary habits and requirements, an interest that runs through Sydenstricker's work at the Immigration Commission and the Commission on Industrial Relations as well.
70. It was Warren who probably recruited Sydenstricker to join the Public Health Service and possibly also to work on pellagra. See Sydenstricker to Charles MCCarthy, September 1915. Box 10, Folder 4, Wis MSS KU, Charles MCCarthy papers, State Historical Society, Madison, Wis. For Warren's interest in pellagra, see Ralph Chester Williams, The United States Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (Washington, DC: Commissioned Officers Association of the Public Health Service, 1951), p. 272.
71. Edgar Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra. Its Possible Relation to the Rise in the Cost of Food," Public Health Rep., 1912, 30, 3132-48. For contemporary skepticism regarding these arguments, see [Wade Hampton] Frost to Joseph Goldberger, 30 October 1915. Box 2, Joseph Goldberger papers, Mss. #1641, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
72. Edgar Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra. Its Possible Relation to the Rise in the Cost of Food," Public Health Rep., 1912, 30, 3132-48. For contemporary skepticism regarding these arguments, see [Wade Hampton] Frost to Joseph Goldberger, 30 October 1915. Box 2, Joseph Goldberger papers, Mss. #1641, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
73. On Public Health Service relations with Spartanburg, see R. M. Grimm to Surgeon General [Rupert Blue], 23 September 1911; R. H. Lavinder to Surgeon General [Blue], 6 September 1911; Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On Tillman's interest in pellagra, see R. H. Lavinder to Walter Wyman [Surgeon General], 20 July 1909; Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 60-62. All correspondence in Box 148, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA.
74. On Public Health Service relations with Spartanburg, see R. M. Grimm to Surgeon General [Rupert Blue], 23 September 1911; R. H. Lavinder to Surgeon General [Blue], 6 September 1911; Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 49-50. On Tillman's interest in pellagra, see R. H. Lavinder to Walter Wyman [Surgeon General], 20 July 1909; Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 60-62. All correspondence in Box 148, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA.
75. Hall et al., Like A Family; G. C. Waldrep III, Southern Workers and the Search for Community Spartanburg County, South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), pp. 7-31. Though Waldrep emphasizes the differences among individual mills in ethos and infrastructure, he accepts the basic premise of a closed community.
76. Hall et al., Like A Family; G. C. Waldrep III, Southern Workers and the Search for Community Spartanburg County, South Carolina (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), pp. 7-31. Though Waldrep emphasizes the differences among individual mills in ethos and infrastructure, he accepts the basic premise of a closed community.
77. For earlier Public Health Service difficulties in collecting dietary data, see R. W. Grimm, Pellagra. Some Facts in Its Epidemiology [1912], Box 149, RG 90, PHS Central File 1897-1923, NA. On the collection of income data in the South Carolina studies, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2680-81; on the collection of dietary data, see idem, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 663-666. For critiques of the methods used by earlier studies to collect data, see ibid., pp. 652-56; Edward B. Veeder, "Dietary Deficiency as the Etiological Factor in Pellagra," Arch. Intern. Med., 1916, 18, 151-53.
78. For earlier Public Health Service difficulties in collecting dietary data, see R. W. Grimm, Pellagra. Some Facts in Its Epidemiology [1912], Box 149, RG 90, PHS Central File 1897-1923, NA. On the collection of income data in the South Carolina studies, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2680-81; on the collection of dietary data, see idem, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 663-666. For critiques of the methods used by earlier studies to collect data, see ibid., pp. 652-56; Edward B. Veeder, "Dietary Deficiency as the Etiological Factor in Pellagra," Arch. Intern. Med., 1916, 18, 151-53.
79. For earlier Public Health Service difficulties in collecting dietary data, see R. W. Grimm, Pellagra. Some Facts in Its Epidemiology [1912], Box 149, RG 90, PHS Central File 1897-1923, NA. On the collection of income data in the South Carolina studies, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2680-81; on the collection of dietary data, see idem, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 663-666. For critiques of the methods used by earlier studies to collect data, see ibid., pp. 652-56; Edward B. Veeder, "Dietary Deficiency as the Etiological Factor in Pellagra," Arch. Intern. Med., 1916, 18, 151-53.
80. For earlier Public Health Service difficulties in collecting dietary data, see R. W. Grimm, Pellagra. Some Facts in Its Epidemiology [1912], Box 149, RG 90, PHS Central File 1897-1923, NA. On the collection of income data in the South Carolina studies, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2680-81; on the collection of dietary data, see idem, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 663-666. For critiques of the methods used by earlier studies to collect data, see ibid., pp. 652-56; Edward B. Veeder, "Dietary Deficiency as the Etiological Factor in Pellagra," Arch. Intern. Med., 1916, 18, 151-53.
81. For earlier Public Health Service difficulties in collecting dietary
82. Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2683.
83. On the methods of income classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2682-85; Edgar Sydenstricker and Wilford I. King, "A Method of Classifying Families According to Incomes in Studies of Disease Prevalence," Public Health Rep., 1920, 3;, 2829-2846. For dietary classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 664-697. Sydenstricker rejected efforts to collect individual consumption data directly as unreliable. See ibid., p. 664.
84. On the methods of income classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2682-85; Edgar Sydenstricker and Wilford I. King, "A Method of Classifying Families According to Incomes in Studies of Disease Prevalence," Public Health Rep., 1920, 3;, 2829-2846. For dietary classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 664-697. Sydenstricker rejected efforts to collect individual consumption data directly as unreliable. See ibid., p. 664.
85. On the methods of income classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2682-85; Edgar Sydenstricker and Wilford I. King, "A Method of Classifying Families According to Incomes in Studies of Disease Prevalence," Public Health Rep., 1920, 3;, 2829-2846. For dietary classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 664-697. Sydenstricker rejected efforts to collect individual consumption data directly as unreliable. See ibid., p. 664.
86. On the methods of income classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2682-85; Edgar Sydenstricker and Wilford I. King, "A Method of Classifying Families According to Incomes in Studies of Disease Prevalence," Public Health Rep., 1920, 3;, 2829-2846. For dietary classification, see Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 664-697. Sydenstricker rejected efforts to collect individual consumption data directly as unreliable. See ibid., p. 664.
87. Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2686-2688. Although Goldberger had earlier speculated about the role of poverty in pellagra, his remarks do not reflect the analytical precision Sydenstricker brought to the question. See Joseph Goldberger, "The Etiology of Pellagra. The Significance of Certain Epidemiological Observations with Respect Thereto," Public Health Rep., 1914, 29, 1685. See also repeated letters in which Goldberger emphasizes diet as the solution to the problem, without mentioning economic conditions. Joseph Goldberger to Mary Goldberger, 30 September 1914, 20 June 1915, and 30 October 1915. All in Box 2, Joseph Goldberger papers, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
88. Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2686-2688. Although Goldberger had earlier speculated about the role of poverty in pellagra, his remarks do not reflect the analytical precision Sydenstricker brought to the question. See Joseph Goldberger, "The Etiology of Pellagra. The Significance of Certain Epidemiological Observations with Respect Thereto," Public Health Rep., 1914, 29, 1685. See also repeated letters in which Goldberger emphasizes diet as the solution to the problem, without mentioning economic conditions. Joseph Goldberger to Mary Goldberger, 30 September 1914, 20 June 1915, and 30 October 1915. All in Box 2, Joseph Goldberger papers, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill.
89. In a later publication, Sydenstricker briefly speculated that lower rates of pellagra among adult men might be due to the fact that "they receive more favorable consideration at the family table and . . . are more likely to have pocket money or store credit [and] are in a position to benefit from supplementary foods secured outside the home." In the same publication, however, having found a great deal of mild, undiagnosed pellagra among children, he questioned whether the conviction that the disease occurs most often in adult women was "well-founded." Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, pp. 17-18. See also Joseph Goldberger, "Pellagra," J. Am. Dietetic Assoc., 1929, 4, 223.
90. In a later publication, Sydenstricker briefly speculated that lower rates of pellagra among adult men might be due to the fact that "they receive more favorable consideration at the family table and . . . are more likely to have pocket money or store credit [and] are in a position to benefit from supplementary foods secured outside the home." In the same publication, however, having found a great deal of mild, undiagnosed pellagra among children, he questioned whether the conviction that the disease occurs most often in adult women was "well-founded." Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, pp. 17-18. See also Joseph Goldberger, "Pellagra," J. Am. Dietetic Assoc., 1929, 4, 223.
91. See, e.g., Sydenstricker's earlier use of the Bureau of Labor's wage standards: "By normal families was meant families in which the father was the bread-winning member, the mother was nonwage earning, and having three dependent children under 14 years of age." Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3133; Sydenstricker and Lauck, Conditions of Labor, pp. 354-63, 366-83.
92. See, e.g., Sydenstricker's earlier use of the Bureau of Labor's wage standards: "By normal families was meant families in which the father was the bread-winning member, the mother was nonwage earning, and having three dependent children under 14 years of age." Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3133; Sydenstricker and Lauck, Conditions of Labor, pp. 354-63, 366-83.
93. See Welfare Activities of Communities. Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities; all in Box 4, U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
94. See Welfare Activities of Communities. Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities; all in Box 4, U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
95. See Welfare Activities of Communities. Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities; all in Box 4, U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
96. See Welfare Activities of Communities. Report to September 1, 1914; Appendix II, The Work of Communities in Improving the Economic Condition of Wage Earners; Appendix III, The Work of Communities in Readjusting Local Industrial Factors Indirectly Affecting the Position of Wage Earners; Appendix VII, Welfare Activities of Commercial Organizations in American Cities; all in Box 4, U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations, Department of Labor, RG 174, NA.
97. Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2694-2711.
98. Ibid., p. 2711. See also Sydenstricker's remarks about the differences between northern and southern poverty in Minutes of the Conference of the State Health Officers of the South with the Surgeon General on the Pellagra Problem, August 4-5, 1921 in Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA.
99. Ibid., p. 2711. See also Sydenstricker's remarks about the differences between northern and southern poverty in Minutes of the Conference of the State Health Officers of the South with the Surgeon General on the Pellagra Problem, August 4-5, 1921 in Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA.
100. Joseph Goldberger, Memorandum Relative to Pellagra, July 18, 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. See also Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra [1929], pp. 52-61. This study covered an additional fourteen villages beyond the original seven, and collected data into the early 1920s. On the agricultural depression of the 1920s, see Gilbert C. Fite, Cotton Fields No More. Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), pp. 102-9.
101. Joseph Goldberger, Memorandum Relative to Pellagra, July 18, 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. See also Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra [1929], pp. 52-61. This study covered an additional fourteen villages beyond the original seven, and collected data into the early 1920s. On the agricultural depression of the 1920s, see Gilbert C. Fite, Cotton Fields No More. Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), pp. 102-9.
102. Joseph Goldberger, Memorandum Relative to Pellagra, July 18, 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. See also Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra [1929], pp. 52-61. This study covered an additional fourteen villages beyond the original seven, and collected data into the early 1920s. On the agricultural depression of the 1920s, see Gilbert C. Fite, Cotton Fields No More. Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), pp. 102-9.
103. Joseph Goldberger, Memorandum Relative to Pellagra, July 18, 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. For a detailed account of Southern opposition to relief measures in the 19205, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-69.
104. Joseph Goldberger, Memorandum Relative to Pellagra, July 18, 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. For a detailed account of Southern opposition to relief measures in the 19205, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-69.
105. Minutes of the Conference of State Health Officers of the South with the Surgeon General on the Pellagra Problem, 4 and 5 August 1921. Box 152, PHS Central File, 1897-1923, RG 90, NA. See also the comments of MCCormack (Kentucky).
106. Report of An Inquiry Relating to the Prevalence of Pellagra in the Area Affected by the Over-Flow of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries in Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana, in the Spring of 1927, by Joseph Goldberger and Edgar Sydenstricker, Box 901, Pellagra (0425), PHS General Subject File, 1924-1935, RG 90, NA. For the best overview of the relief programs, see William DeKleine, "Recent Trends in Pellagra," Am. J. Public Health, 1937, 27, 595-598.
107. Report of An Inquiry Relating to the Prevalence of Pellagra in the Area Affected by the Over-Flow of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries in Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana, in the Spring of 1927, by Joseph Goldberger and Edgar Sydenstricker, Box 901, Pellagra (0425), PHS General Subject File, 1924-1935, RG 90, NA. For the best overview of the relief programs, see William DeKleine, "Recent Trends in Pellagra," Am. J. Public Health, 1937, 27, 595-598.
108. These passages come from the published version of their report: Joseph Goldberger and Edgar Sydenstricker "Pellagra in the Mississippi Flood Area," Public Health Rep., 1927, 42, 2733.
109. Ibid., pp. 2712-20.
110. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
111. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
112. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
113. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
114. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
115. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
116. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
117. On the initial reaction, no doubt made more extreme by President Harding's announcement of the need to relieve a "famine" in the south, see Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste, pp. 146-67; Surgeon General Hugh S. Cumming to President Warren G. Harding, 9 August 1921, Box 152, Central File 1897-1923, PHS, RG 90, NA. For other contemporary analyses of sharecropping, see Arthur F. Raper, Preface to Peasantry. A Tale of Two Black Belt Counties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936); Charles S. Johnson, Shadow of the Plantation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934, 1969). For medical articles indicting monoculture as the cause of pellagra, see C. W. Garrison, "Economic Aspects of Pellagra," South. Med. J., 1928, 21, 237-40; Paul S. Carley, "The Use of Dried Brewer's Yeast in the Treatment and Prevention of Pellagra," New Orleans Med. Surg. J., 1930, 82, 740-44; W. H. Sebrell, "Pellagra," Virginia Med. Monthly, 1934, 61, 137; Charles D. Reece, "The Pellagra Problem in the South," South. Med. J., 1935, 28, 473; Jet C. Winters, "The Relation of Human Nutrition to the Social and Economic Condition of the South," J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1940, 16, 217-19.
118. Lauck and Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor, pp. 259-261. See also Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3162-3163, emphasizing the recent rural-urban transition for Southern mill workers, in contrast to New Englanders.
119. Lauck and Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor, pp. 259-261. See also Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3162-3163, emphasizing the recent rural-urban transition for Southern mill workers, in contrast to New Englanders.
120. In different publications, the Public Health Service investigators offered various reasons for not collecting data on the Negro families: "too few" in Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2678; "too laborious" in Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, p. 9. Elsewhere, they state that they chose not to analyze "negro employees." See Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 659. For the African-American population in South Carolina counties, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920. Population. Volume VI, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1922).
121. In different publications, the Public Health Service investigators offered various reasons for not collecting data on the Negro families: "too few" in Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2678; "too laborious" in Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, p. 9. Elsewhere, they state that they chose not to analyze "negro employees." See Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 659. For the African-American population in South Carolina counties, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920. Population. Volume VI, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1922).
122. In different publications, the Public Health Service investigators offered various reasons for not collecting data on the Negro families: "too few" in Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2678; "too laborious" in Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, p. 9. Elsewhere, they state that they chose not to analyze "negro employees." See Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 659. For the African-American population in South Carolina counties, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920. Population. Volume VI, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1922).
123. In different publications, the Public Health Service investigators offered various reasons for not collecting data on the Negro families: "too few" in Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "Study of the Relation of Family Income," 2678; "too laborious" in Goldberger et al., A Study of Endemic Pellagra, p. 9. Elsewhere, they state that they chose not to analyze "negro employees." See Goldberger, Wheeler, and Sydenstricker, "A Study of the Relation of Diet," 659. For the African-American population in South Carolina counties, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920. Population. Volume VI, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of the Census, 1922).
124. Goldberger and Sydenstricker "Pellagra in the Mississippi Flood Area," 2712.
125. Beardsley
126. According to Dickins' data, whites consumed twice as much salmon and three times as much milk. (Dickins herself did not make any connection to the pellagra issue, however, in this publication.) Dorothy Dickins, A Nutrition Investigation of Negro Tenants in the Yazoo Mississippi Delta. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin no 254 (1928). Similar data were reported by South Carolina nutritional researchers, according to Beardsley, A History of Neglect, pp. 29-30.
127. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Mortality Statistics, 1926-1928 (Washington, DC.: Bureau of the Census, 1928-1930), data for Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Tennessee. The proportion would be even higher if 1926 data were available for Arkansas, and if one allowed for the fact that much of Tennessee, four-fifths white, was not in the flood region.
128. On mortality observations in 1927, see Joseph Goldberger and Edgar Sydenstricker, Report of An Inquiry Relating to the Prevalence of Pellagra in the Area Affected by the Over-flow of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries in Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana. Box 901, PHS General Subject file, 1924-1925, RG 90, NA. On mortality statistics more generally, see Edgar Sydenstricker, "The Measurement of Results of Public Health Work. An Introductory Discussion [1925]," in R. Kasius, The Challenge of Facts, pp. 58-59. Certainly, the small numbers of deaths occurring precluded the use of mortality analysis in the earlier South Carolina studies.
129. On mortality observations in 1927, see Joseph Goldberger and Edgar Sydenstricker, Report of An Inquiry Relating to the Prevalence of Pellagra in the Area Affected by the Over-flow of the Mississippi and Its Tributaries in Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana. Box 901, PHS General Subject file, 1924-1925, RG 90, NA. On mortality statistics more generally, see Edgar Sydenstricker, "The Measurement of Results of Public Health Work. An Introductory Discussion [1925]," in R. Kasius, The Challenge of Facts, pp. 58-59. Certainly, the small numbers of deaths occurring precluded the use of mortality analysis in the earlier South Carolina studies.
130. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come. The 1927 Mississippi River Flood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 105-9; idem, The Shadow of Slavery, Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972) pp. 149-69; Robyn Spencer, "Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor," J. Negro Hist., 1994, 79, 170-81. On the operations of the share-cropping system for African-Americans more generally in the 1910s, see James C. Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth. The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) pp. 101-9.
131. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come. The 1927 Mississippi River Flood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 105-9; idem, The Shadow of Slavery, Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972) pp. 149-69; Robyn Spencer, "Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor," J. Negro Hist., 1994, 79, 170-81. On the operations of the share-cropping system for African-Americans more generally in the 1910s, see James C. Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth. The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) pp. 101-9.
132. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come. The 1927 Mississippi River Flood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 105-9; idem, The Shadow of Slavery, Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972) pp. 149-69; Robyn Spencer, "Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor," J. Negro Hist., 1994, 79, 170-81. On the operations of the share-cropping system for African-Americans more generally in the 1910s, see James C. Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth. The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) pp. 101-9.
133. Pete Daniel, Deep'n As It Come. The 1927 Mississippi River Flood (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 105-9; idem, The Shadow of Slavery, Peonage in the South, 1901-1969 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972) pp. 149-69; Robyn Spencer, "Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor," J. Negro Hist., 1994, 79, 170-81. On the operations of the share-cropping system for African-Americans more generally in the 1910s, see James C. Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth. The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992) pp. 101-9.
134. The ever-prescient DuBois, of course, limned the essential elements of the tenant system in 1903: W. E. B. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Library of America, 1990), pp. 107-18.
135. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, p. 16.
136. For mill workers, Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3132-48. Compare the analyses of tenant agriculture in the United States. Commission on Industrial Relations Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations (Washington, D.C.: Barnard & Miller, 1915), pp. 14-16, 127-32. Sydenstricker himself did not study agricultural labor for the Commission on Industrial Relations.
137. For mill workers, Sydenstricker, "The Prevalence of Pellagra," 3132-48. Compare the analyses of tenant agriculture in the United States. Commission on Industrial Relations Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations (Washington, D.C.: Barnard & Miller, 1915), pp. 14-16, 127-32. Sydenstricker himself did not study agricultural labor for the Commission on Industrial Relations.
138. On the notion of "race," see Lauck and Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor, pp. 1-10; similarly, "segregation" meant the residential segregation of immigrant workers: ibid., pp. 310-12. See ibid., pp. 38-43, 133-37 for analysis of "racial" differences in income.
139. On the notion of "race," see Lauck and Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor, pp. 1-10; similarly, "segregation" meant the residential segregation of immigrant workers: ibid., pp. 310-12. See ibid., pp. 38-43, 133-37 for analysis of "racial" differences in income.
140. On the notion of "race," see Lauck and Sydenstricker, Conditions of Labor, pp. 1-10; similarly, "segregation" meant the residential segregation of immigrant workers: ibid., pp. 310-12. See ibid., pp. 38-43, 133-37 for analysis of "racial" differences in income.
141. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. Soc. Sci., 1901, 18, 1-180.
142. The following discussion draws on recent work by Matthew Pratt Gutterl, The Color of Race in American, 1900-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Gerald M. Oppenheimer, "Paradigm Lost: Race, Ethnicity and the Search for a New Population Taxonomy," Am. J. Public Health, 2001, 91, 1049-55. The full history of "race" in social science and social reform remains to be written.
143. The following discussion draws on recent work by Matthew Pratt Gutterl, The Color of Race in American, 1900-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Gerald M. Oppenheimer, "Paradigm Lost: Race, Ethnicity and the Search for a New Population Taxonomy," Am. J. Public Health, 2001, 91, 1049-55. The full history of "race" in social science and social reform remains to be written.
144. The following discussion draws on recent work by Matthew Pratt Gutterl, The Color of Race in American, 1900-1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Gerald M. Oppenheimer, "Paradigm Lost: Race, Ethnicity and the Search for a New Population Taxonomy," Am. J. Public Health, 2001, 91, 1049-55. The full history of "race" in social science and social reform remains to be written.
145. On the biological theory of race, as used to justify white hegemony in the South, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind. The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 228-55. Compare John Higham, Strangers in the Land. Patterns of American Nativism 1860-1925 (Boston: Athaneum, 1973), pp. 131-57. Higham discusses the hardening and deepening of biological notions of race in almost identical terms, with reference to immigrant groups.
146. On the biological theory of race, as used to justify white hegemony in the South, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind. The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), pp. 228-55. Compare John Higham, Strangers in the Land. Patterns of American Nativism 1860-1925 (Boston: Athaneum, 1973), pp. 131-57. Higham discusses the hardening and deepening of biological notions of race in almost identical terms, with reference to immigrant groups.
147. Recent discussions of DuBois' notions of race overemphasize somewhat the Darwinian influence. See Mia Bay, "'The World Was Wrong Thinking about Race.' The Philadelphia Negro and Nineteenth Century Science," and Thomas C. Holt, "W.E.B. DuBois' Archaeology of Race. Re-Reading 'The Conservation of the Races,'" both in Michael B. Katz and Thomas J. Sugrue, W.E.B. DuBois, Race, and the City. The Philadelphia Negro' and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 41-60, 61-76. Holt's reading of DuBois, despite its strong emphasis on the historicist notions of race, might make more sense if we look to early rather than late nineteenth-century notions as the source.
148. Recent discussions of DuBois' notions of race overemphasize somewhat the Darwinian influence. See Mia Bay, "'The World Was Wrong Thinking about Race.' The Philadelphia Negro and Nineteenth Century Science," and Thomas C. Holt, "W.E.B. DuBois' Archaeology of Race. Re-Reading 'The Conservation of the Races,'" both in Michael B. Katz and Thomas J. Sugrue, W.E.B. DuBois, Race, and the City. The Philadelphia Negro' and Its Legacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 41-60, 61-76. Holt's reading of DuBois, despite its strong emphasis on the historicist notions of race, might make more sense if we look to early rather than late nineteenth-century notions as the source.
149. Such inquiries were prompted by a growing awareness of the African-American presence in the north, which was given further stimulus by the onset of the Great Migration. See the brief accounts in Nancy J. Weiss, The National Urban League 1910-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Laurence A. Glasco, "Optimism, Dilemmas and Progress. The Pittsburgh Survey and Black Americans," in Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed. Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), pp. 205-220. Compare the investigations of immigrants, described in Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s," in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds. The Social Survey in Historical Perspective 1880-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 111-47, especially pp. 124-32.
150. Such inquiries were prompted by a growing awareness of the African-American presence in the north, which was given further stimulus by the onset of the Great Migration. See the brief accounts in Nancy J. Weiss, The National Urban League 1910-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Laurence A. Glasco, "Optimism, Dilemmas and Progress. The Pittsburgh Survey and Black Americans," in Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed. Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), pp. 205-220. Compare the investigations of immigrants, described in Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s," in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds. The Social Survey in Historical Perspective 1880-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 111-47, especially pp. 124-32.
151. Such inquiries were prompted by a growing awareness of the African-American presence in the north, which was given further stimulus by the onset of the Great Migration. See the brief accounts in Nancy J. Weiss, The National Urban League 1910-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Laurence A. Glasco, "Optimism, Dilemmas and Progress. The Pittsburgh Survey and Black Americans," in Maurine W. Greenwald and Margo Anderson, eds., Pittsburgh Surveyed. Social Science and Social Reform in the Early Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), pp. 205-220. Compare the investigations of immigrants, described in Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s," in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds. The Social Survey in Historical Perspective 1880-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 111-47, especially pp. 124-32.
152. Quoted in Carolyn Wedin, Inheritors of the Spirit. Mary White Ovington and the Founding of the NAACP (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998), p. 49.
153. The structure of DuBois' Souls of Black Folk, recounting a journey from north to south and back north again, is brilliantly arranged to produce this sense of a national, rather than a sectional, issue. White reformers who focus on the North as well as the South, and who begin to see African-American difficulties as distinct from those of other groups tend to be individuals like Ovington who were influenced by DuBois. See Wedin, Inheritors, and John R. Commons, Races and Immigrants in America (New York: MacMillan, 1907), pp. 39-62. Commons is early among the labor economists to devote special attention to African-Americans as distinct from other immigrant groups.
154. The structure of DuBois' Souls of Black Folk, recounting a journey from north to south and back north again, is brilliantly arranged to produce this sense of a national, rather than a sectional, issue. White reformers who focus on the North as well as the South, and who begin to see African-American difficulties as distinct from those of other groups tend to be individuals like Ovington who were influenced by DuBois. See Wedin, Inheritors, and John R. Commons, Races and Immigrants in America (New York: MacMillan, 1907), pp. 39-62. Commons is early among the labor economists to devote special attention to African-Americans as distinct from other immigrant groups.
155. The structure of DuBois' Souls of Black Folk, recounting a journey from north to south and back north again, is brilliantly arranged to produce this sense of a national, rather than a sectional, issue. White reformers who focus on the North as well as the South, and who begin to see African-American difficulties as distinct from those of other groups tend to be individuals like Ovington who were influenced by DuBois. See Wedin, Inheritors, and John R. Commons, Races and Immigrants in America (New York: MacMillan, 1907), pp. 39-62. Commons is early among the labor economists to devote special attention to African-Americans as distinct from other immigrant groups.
156. Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness. The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Vintage Books, 1998).