Evidence-based guidelines for treating bipolar disorder: Recommendations from the British Association for Psychopharmacology

Journal of Psychopharmacology

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 149-173

  Goodwin, G M ^a  

^a WARNEFORD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anticonvulsants; Antidepressants; Antipsychotics; Bipolar disorder; CBT; Depression; Evidence based guidelines; Lithium; Mania; Mood stabilizers; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ARIPIPRAZOLE; BENZODIAZEPINE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CHLORPROMAZINE; CLONAZEPAM; CORTICOSTEROID; DIAZEPAM; FLUOXETINE; HALOPERIDOL; IMIPRAMINE; LAMOTRIGINE; LEVODOPA; LITHIUM; LORAZEPAM; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PLACEBO; QUETIAPINE; RISPERIDONE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRANYLCYPROMINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; VALPROATE SEMISODIUM; ZIPRASIDONE;

BEHAVIOR THERAPY; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMORBIDITY; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEPRESSION; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG SAFETY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FAMILY THERAPY; GERONTOPSYCHIATRY; GROUP THERAPY; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HUMAN; LONG TERM CARE; MANIA; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL HEALTH CARE; META ANALYSIS; NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME; ORGANIZATION; PATIENT COUNSELING; PATIENT EDUCATION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSIS; PSYCHOPHARMACOTHERAPY; PSYCHOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; RELAPSE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP DISORDER; SOCIAL SUPPORT; STRESS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDE; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; TERATOGENICITY; UNITED KINGDOM; WEIGHT GAIN;

ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; ANTIMANIC AGENTS; BIPOLAR DISORDER; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; GREAT BRITAIN; HUMANS;

EID: 0038000594     PISSN: 02698811     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0269881103017002003     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Akiskal H S, Bourgeois M L, Angst J, Post R, Moller H, Hirschfeld R (2000) Re-evaluating the prevalence of and diagnostic composition within the broad clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders. J Affect Disord 59 (Suppl 1): S5-S30
2. Allen M H, Currier G W, Hughes D H, Reyes-Harde M, Docherty J P (2001) The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Treatment of behavioral emergencies. Postgrad Med Special no.: 1-88
3. Altshuler L, Kiriakos L, Calcagno J, Goodman R, Gitlin M, Frye M, Mintz J (2001) The impact of antidepressant discontinuation versus antidepressant continuation on 1-year risk for relapse of bipolar depression: a retrospective chart review. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 612-616
4. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual for mental disorders (DSM-IV). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
5. American Psychiatric Association (2002) Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder (revision). Am J Psychiatry 159 (4 Suppl): 1-50
6. Anderson I M (2001) Meta-analytical studies on new antidepressants. Br Med Bull 57:161-78
7. Anderson I M, Nutt D J, Deakin J F (2000) Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 1993 British Association for Psychopharmacology Guidelines. J Psychopharmacol 14: 3-20
8. Andrew H G (1994) Clinical relationship of extrapyramidal symptoms and tardive dyskinesia. Can J Psychiatry 39 (Suppl 2): S76-S80
9. Angst F, Stassen H H, Clayton P J, Angst J (2002) Mortality of patients with mood disorders: follow-up over 34-38 years. J Affect Disord 68: 167-181
10. Angst J (1998) The emerging epidemiology of hypomania and bipolar II disorder. J Affect Disord 50: 143-151
11. Angst J, Preisig M (1995) Course of a clinical cohort of unipolar, bipolar and schizoaffective patients. Results of a prospective study from 1959 to 1985. Schweiz Arch Neurol Psychiatry 146: 5-16
12. Angst J, Sellaro R (2000) Historical perspectives and natural history of bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 48: 445-457
13. Angst J, Gamma A, Benazzi F, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rossler W (2003) Toward a re-definition of subthreshold bipolarity: epidemiology and proposed criteria for bipolar-II, minor bipolar disorders and hypomania. J Affect Disord 73: 133-146
14. Appleby L, Mortensen P B, Faragher E B (1998) Suicide and other causes of mortality after post-partum psychiatric admission. Br J Psychiatry 173: 209-211
15. Ashcroft R (2000) Giving medicine a fair trial. Trials should not second guess what patients want. BMJ 320: 1686
16. Austin M P, Mitchell P B (1998) Use of psychotropic medications in breast-feeding women: acute and prophylactic treatment. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 32: 778-784
17. Bain M, Juszczak E, McInneny K, Kendell R E (2000) Obstetric complications and affective psychoses. two case-control studies based on structured obstetric records. Br J Psychiatry 176: 523-526
18. Bhagwagar Z, Goodwin G M (2002) The role of lithium in the treatment of bipolar depression. Clin Neurosci Res 2: 222-227.
19. Black D W, Winokur G, Nasrallah A (1987) Suicide in subtypes of major affective disorder. a comparison with general population suicide mortality. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44: 878-880
20. Blacker D, Tsuang M T (1.992) Contested boundaries of bipolar disorder and the limits of categorical diagnosis in psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry 149: 1473-1483
21. Bostwick J M, Pankratz V S (2000) Affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination. Am J Psychiatry 157: 1925-1932
22. Bottlender R, Rudolf D, Strauss A, Moller H J (2001) Mood-stabilisers reduce the risk of developing antidepressant-induced maniform states in acute treatment of bipolar I depressed patients. J Affect Disord 63: 79-83
23. Bowden C L, Brugger A M, Swann A C, Calabrese J R, Janicak P G, Petty F, Dilsaver S C, Davis J M, Rush A J, Small J G et al. (1994) Efficacy of divalproex vs lithium and placebo in the treatment of mania. The Depakote Mania Study Group. JAMA 271: 918-924
24. Brown E S, Khan D A, Nejtek V A (1999) The psychiatric side effects of corticosteroids. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 83: 495-503
25. Brown E S, Suppes T, Khan D A, Carmody T J (2002) Mood changes during prednisone bursts in outpatients with asthma. J Clin Psychopharmacol 22: 55-61
26. Browne R, Byrne M, Mulryan N, Scully A, Morris M, Kinsella A, McNeil T F, Walsh D, O'Callaghan E (2000) Labour and delivery complications at birth and later mania. An Irish case register study. Br J Psychiatry 176: 369-372
27. Burgess S, Geddes J, Hawton K, Townsend E, Jamison K, Goodwin G (2001) Lithium for maintenance treatment of mood disorders (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003013
28. Burns T, White I, Byford S, Fiander M, Creed F, Fahy T (2002) Exposure to case management: relationships to patient characteristics and outcome. Report From the UK700 Trial. Br J Psychiatry 181: 236-241
29. Calabrese J R, Bowden C L, Sachs G S, Ascher J A, Monaghan E, Rudd G D (1999) A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine monotherapy in outpatients with bipolar I depression. Lamictal 602 Study Group. J Clin Psychiatry 60: 79-88
30. Calabrese J R, Shelton M D, Rapport D J, Kujawa M, Kimmel S E, Caban S (2001) Current research on rapid cycling bipolar disorder and its treatment. J Affect Disord 67: 241-255
31. Cassidy F, Forest K, Murry E, Carroll B J (1998) A factor analysis of the signs and symptoms of mania. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 27-32
32. Cassidy F, Pieper C F, Carroll B J (2001) Subtypes of mania determined by grade of membership analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology 25: 373-383
33. Chaudron L H, Jefferson J W (2000) Mood stabilizers during breastfeeding: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 61: 79-90
34. Chou J C, Zito J M, Vitrai J, Craig T J, Allingham B H, Czobor P (1996) Neuroleptics in acute mania: a pharmacoepidemiologic study. Ann Pharmacother 30: 1396-1398
35. Clark L, Iversen S D, Goodwin G M (2002) Sustained attention deficit in bipolar disorder. Br J Psychiatry 180: 313-319
36. Clement S, Singh S P, Burns T (2003) Status of bipolar disorder research. Bibliometric study. Br J Psychiatry 182: 148-152
37. Clyburn L D, Stones M J, Hadjistavropoulos T, Tuokko H (2000) Predicting caregiver burden and depression in Alzheimer's disease. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 55: S2-S13
38. Cochran S (1984) Preventing medical non-adherence in the outpatient treatment of bipolar affective disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 52. 873-8781
39. Cohen L S, Friedman J M, Jefferson J W, Johnson E M, Weiner M L (1994) A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. JAMA 271:146-150
40. Colom F, Vieta E, Martinez A, Jorquera A, Gasto C (1998) What is the role of psychotherapy in the treatment of bipolar disorder? Psychother Psychosom 67: 3-9
41. Colom F, Vieta E, Martinez-Aran A, Reinares M, Goikolea J M, Benabarre A, Torrent C, Comes M A, et al. (2003) A randomized trial on the efficacy of group psychoeducation in the prophylaxis of recurrences in bipolar patients whose disease is in remission. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60: 402-407
42. Compton M T, Nemeroff C B (2000) The treatment of bipolar depression. J Clin Psychiatry 61 (Suppl 9): 57-67
43. Cookson J (2001) Use of antipsychotic drugs and lithium in mania. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 41: S148-S156
44. Cummings J L, Mendez M F (1984) Secondary mania with focal cerebrovascular lesions. Am J Psychiatry 141: 1084-1087
45. Denicoff K D, Leverich G S, Nolen W A, Rush A J, McElroy S L, Keck P E, Suppes T, Altshuler L L, Kupka R, Frye M A, Hatef J, Brotman M A, Post R M (2000) Validation of the Prospective NIMH-Life-Chart Method (NIMH-LCM-p) for longitudinal assessment of bipolar illness. Psychol Med 30: 1391-1397
46. Department of Health (1999) A national service framework for mental health. Department of Health, London
47. Duncan S (2001) Polycystic ovarian syndrome in women with epilepsy: a review. Epilepsia 42 (Suppl 3): 60-65
48. Ebbesen F, Joergensen A, Hoseth E, Kaad P H, Moeller M, Holsteen V, Rix M (2000) Neonatal hypoglycaemia and withdrawal symptoms after exposure in utero to valproate. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 83: F124-F129
49. Eddy D M (1990) Clinical decision making: from theory to practice. designing a practice policy. Standards, guidelines, and options. JAMA 263: 3077-3084
50. Esparon J, Kolloori J, Naylor G J, McHarg A M, Smith A H, Hopwood S E (1986) Comparison of the prophylactic action of flupenthixol with placebo in lithium treated manic-depressive patients. Br J Psychiatry 148: 723-725
51. Fadden G, Bebbington P, Kuipers L (1987) The burden of care: the impact of functional psychiatric illness on the patient's family. Br J Psychiatry 150: 285-292
52. Frances A J, Kahn D A, Carpenter D, Docherty J P, Donovan S L (1998) The Expert Consensus Guidelines for treating depression in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 59 (Suppl 4): 73-79
53. Frank E, Hlastala S, Ritenour A, Houck P, Tu X, Monk T, Mallinge A, Kupfer D (1994) Inducing lifestyle regularity in recovering bipolar patients: results from the maintenance therapies in bipolar disorder protocol. Biol Psychiatry 41: 1165-1173
54. Freeman M P, Freeman S A, McElroy S L (2002) The comorbidity of bipolar and anxiety disorders: prevalence, psychobiology, and treatment issues. J Affect Disord 68: 1-23
55. Frye M A, Ketter T A, Kimbrell T A, Dunn R T, Speer A M, Osuch E A, Luckenbaugh D A, Cora-Ocatelli G, Leverich G S, Post R M (2000) A placebo-controlled study of lamotrigine and gabapentin monotherapy in refractory mood disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol 20: 607-614
56. Geddes J, Goodwin G (2001) Bipolar disorder: clinical uncertainty, evidence-based medicine and large-scale randomised trials. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 41: S191-S194
57. Geddes J, Freemantle N, Harrison P, Bebbington P (2000) Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: systematic overview and meta-regression analysis. BMJ 321: 1371-1376
58. Geddes J R, Carney S M, Davies C, Furukawa T, Kupfer D J, Frank E, Goodwin G M (2003) Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders. Lancet 361:643-651
59. Geller B, Sun K, Zimerman B, Luby J, Frazier J, Williams M (1995) Complex and rapid-cycling in bipolar children and adolescents: a preliminary study. J Affect Disord 34: 259-268
60. Ghaemi S N, Lenox M S, Baldessarini R J (2001) Effectiveness and safety of long-term antidepressant treatment in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 565-569
61. Gijsman H J, Geddes J R, Rendell J M, Nolen W A, Goodwin G M (2003) Antidepressants for bipolar depression: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials, submitted
62. Goldstein T R, Frye M A, Denicoff K D, Smith-Jackson E, Leverich G S, Bryan A L, Ali S O, Post R M (1999) Antidepressant discontinuation-related mania: critical prospective observation and theoretical implications in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 60: 563-567
63. Goodwin G M (1994) Recurrence of mania after lithium withdrawal. implications for the use of lithium in the treatment of bipolar affective disorder. Br J Psychiatry 164: 149-152
64. Goodwin G M (2002) Hypomania - whats in a name? Br J Psychiatry 181: 94-95
65. Greil W, Ludwig-Mayerhofer W, Erazo N, Schochlin C, Schmidt S, Engel R R, Czernik A, Giedke H, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Osterheider M, Rudolf G A, Sauer H, Tegeler J, Wetterling T (1997) Lithium versus carbamazepine in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorders - a randomised study. J Affect Disord 43: 151-161
66. Grunze H, Kasper S, Goodwin G, Bowden C, Baldwin D, Licht R, Vieta E, Moller H J (2002) World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of bipolar disorders. Part I: treatment of bipolar depression. World J Biol Psychiatry 3: 115-124
67. Hartong E-G, Moleman P, Hoogduin C A, Broekman T G, Nolen W A (2003) Prophylactic efficacy of lithium versus carbamazepine in treatment-naive bipolar patients. J Clin Psychiatry 64(2): 144-151
68. Harris E C, Barraclough B (1997) Suicide as an outcome for mental disorders. A meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 170: 205-228
69. Hawton K (1987) Assessment of suicide risk. Br J Psychiatry 150: 145-153
70. Hiller W, Dichtl G, Hecht H, Hundt W, von Zerssen D (1993) An empirical comparison of diagnoses and reliabilities in ICD-10 and DSM-III-R. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 242: 209-217
71. Horne R, Weinman J (1999) Patients' beliefs about prescribed medicines and their role in adherence to treatment in chronic physical illness. J Psychosom Res 47: 555-567
72. Johnson R E, McFarland B H (1996) Lithium use and discontinuation in a health maintenance organization. Am J Psychiatry 153: 993-1000
73. Johnstone E C, Crow T J, Frith C D, Owens D G (1988) The Northwick Park 'Functional' Psychosis Study: diagnosis and treatment response. Lancet 2: 119-125
74. Judd L L, Akiskal H S, Schettler P J, Endicott J, Maser J, Solomon D A, Leon A C, Rice J A, Keller M B (2002) The long-term natural history of the weekly symptomatic status of bipolar I disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 530-537
75. Kaneko S, Battino D, Andermann E, Wada K, Kan R, Takeda A, Nakane Y, Ogawa Y, Avanzini G, Fumarola C, Granata T, Molteni F, Pardi G, Minotti L, Canger R, Dansky L, Oguni M, Lopes-Cendas I, Sherwin A, Andermann F, Seni M H, Okada M, Teranishi T (1999) Congenital malformations due to anti-epileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res 33: 145-158
76. Kapur S, Remington G (2001) Atypical antipsychotics: new directions and new challenges in the treatment of schizophrenia. Annu Rev Med 52: 503-517
77. Keck P E Jr, McElroy S L, Strakowski S M, Soutullo C A (2000) Antipsychotics in the treatment of mood disorders and risk of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry 61 (Suppl 4): 33-38
78. Kemp R, Kirov G, Everitt B, Hayward P, David A (1998) Randomised controlled trial of compliance therapy. 18-month follow-up. Br J Psychiatry 172: 413-419
79. Kendell R E (1987) Diagnosis and classification of functional psychoses. Br Med Bull 43: 499-513
80. Kendell R E, Gourlay J (1970) The clinical distinction between the affective psychoses and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 117: 261-266
81. Kessler R C, Rubinow D R, Holmes C, Abelson J M, Zhao S (1997) The epidemiology of DSM-III-R bipolar I disorder in a general population survey. Psychol Med 27: 1079-1089
82. Ketter T A, Calabrese J R (2002) Stabilization of mood from below versus above baseline in bipolar disorder: a new nomenclature. J Clin Psychiatry 63: 146-151
83. Lam D, Watkins E, Hayward P, Bight J, Wright K, Kerr N, Parr-Davis G, Sham P (2003) A randomised controlled study of cognitive therapy of relapse prevention for bipolar affective disorder - outcome of the first year. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60: 145-152
84. Lebensohn Z M (1999) The history of electroconvulsive therapy in the United States and its place in American psychiatry: a personal memoir. Compr Psychiatry 40: 173-181
85. Leventhal H, Diefenbach M, Leventhal E A (1992) Illness cognition: using common sense to understand treatment adherence and affect cognition interactions. Cognit Therapy Res 16: 143-163
86. Leverich G S, McElroy S L, Suppes T, Keck P E Jr, Denicoff K D, Nolen W A, Altshuler L L, Rush A J, Kupka R, Frye M A, Autio K A, Post R M (2002) Early physical and sexual abuse associated with an adverse course of bipolar illness. Biol Psychiatry 51: 288-297
87. Licht R W (1998) Drug treatment of mania: a critical review. Acta Psychiatr Scand 97: 387-397
88. Lingam R, Scott J (2002) Treatment non-adherence in affective disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 105: 164-172
89. Lish J D, Dime-Meenan S, Whybrow P C, Price R A, Hirschfeld R M (1994) The National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association (DMDA) survey of bipolar members. J Affect Disord 31: 281-294
90. Littlejohn R, Leslie F, Cookson J (1994) Depot antipsychotics in the prophylaxis of bipolar affective disorder. Br J Psychiatry 165: 827-829
91. Lloyd T, Jones P B (2002) The epidemiology of first-onset mania. Textbook in psychiatric epidemiology, Tsuang M T, Tohen M (eds), pp. 445-458. Wiley-Liss, New York
92. Lowe M R, Batchelor D H (1986) Depot neuroleptics and manic depressive psychosis. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1 (Suppl 1): 53-62
93. MacQueen G M, Young L T, Joffe R T (2001) A review of psychosocial outcome in patients with bipolar disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 103: 163-170
94. Macritchie K, Geddes J R, Scott J, Haslam D, De Lima M, Goodwin G (2003) Valproate for acute mood episodes in bipolar disorder (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004052
95. Macritchie K A, Geddes J R, Scott J, Haslam D R, Goodwin G M (2001) Valproic acid, valproate and divalproex in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder (Cochrane Review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003196
96. Maj M, Pirozzi R, Formicola A M, Tortorella A (1999) Reliability and validity of four alternative definitions of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1421-1424
97. Maj M, Pirozzi R, Formicola A M, Bartoli L, Bucci P (2000) Reliability and validity of the DSM-IV diagnostic category of schizoaffective disorder: preliminary data. J Affect Disord 57: 95-98
98. McElroy S L, Keck P-E Jr, Strakowski S M (1996) Mania, psychosis, and antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 57 (Suppl 3): 14-26
99. Mendez M F (2000) Mania in neurologic disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2: 440-445
100. Miklowitz D J, Simoneau T L, George E L, Richards J A, Kalbag A, Sachs-Ericsson N, Suddath R (2000) Family focused treatment of bipolar disorder: 1-year effects of a psychoeducational program in conjunction with pharmacotherapy. Biol Psychiatry 48: 582-592
101. Mitchell P B, Wilhelm K, Parker G, Austin M-P, Rutgers P, Malhi G S (2001) The clinical features of bipolar depression: a comparison with matched major depressive disorder patients. J Clin Psychiatry 62: 212-216
102. Moller H J, Grunze H (2000) Have some guidelines for the treatment of acute bipolar depression gone too far in the restriction of antidepressants? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 250: 57-68
103. Moller H J, Bottlender R, Grunze H, Strauss A, Wittmann J (2001) Are antidepressants less effective in the acute treatment of bipolar I compared to unipolar depression? J Affect Disord 67: 141-146
104. Monaco F, Cicolin A (1999) Interactions between anticonvulsant and psychoactive drugs. Epilepsia 40 (Suppl 10):S71-S76
105. Montgomery S A, Schatzberg A F, Guelfi J D, Kasper S, Nemeroff C, Swann A, Zajecka J (2000) Pharmacotherapy of depression and mixed states in bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 59 (Suppl 1): S39-S56
106. Morriss R, Marshall M, Harris A (2002) Bipolar affective disorder-left out in the cold. Too late for the national service framework but local initiatives may be possible. BMJ 324: 61-62
107. Mukherjee S, Sackeim H A, Schnur D B (1994) Electroconvulsive therapy of acute manic episodes: a review of 50 years' experience. Am J Psychiatry 151: 169-176
108. Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Retzow A, Henn F A, Giedke H, Walden J (2000) Valproate as an adjunct to neuroleptic medication for the treatment of acute episodes of mania: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study. European Valproate Mania Study Group. J Clin Psychopharmacol 20: 195-203
109. Naranjo C A, Herrmann N, Mittmann N, Bremner K E (1995) Recent advances in geriatric psychopharmacology. Drugs Aging 7: 184-202
110. Okuma T, Kishimoto A (1998) A history of investigation on the mood stabilizing effect of carbamazepine in Japan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 52: 3-12
111. Omtzigt J G, Los F J, Grobbee D E, Pijpers L, Jahoda M G, Brandenburg H, Stewart P A, Gaillard H L, Sachs E S, Wladimiroff J W, et al. (1992) The risk of spina bifida aperta after first-trimester exposure to valproate in a prenatal cohort. Neurology 42 (Suppl 5): 119-125
112. Pande A C, Crockatt J G, Janney C A, Werth J L, Tsaroucha G (2000) Gabapentin in bipolar disorder: a placebo-controlled trial of adjunctive therapy. Gabapentin Bipolar Disorder Study Group. Bipolar Disord 2: 249-255
113. Peet M (1994) Induction of mania with selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants. Br J Psychiatry 164: 549-550
114. Perlick D, Clarkin J F, Sirey J, Raue P, Greenfield S, Struening E, Rosenheck R (1999) Burden experienced by care-givers of persons with bipolar affective disorder. Br J Psychiatry 175: 56-62
115. Perry A, Tarrier N, Morriss R, McCarthy E, Limb K (1999) Randomised controlled trial of efficacy of teaching patients with bipolar disorder to identify early symptoms of relapse and obtain treatment. BMJ 318: 149-153
116. Post R M, Ketter T A, Pazzaglia P J, Denicoff K, George M S, Callahan A, Leverich G, Frye M (1996) Rational polypharmacy in the bipolar affective disorders. Epilepsy Res Suppl 11: 153-180
117. Potash J B, DePaulo J-R Jr (2000) Searching high and low: a review of the genetics of bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2: 8-26
118. Prien R F, Caffey E-M Jr, Klett C J (1972) Comparison of lithium carbonate and chlorpromazine in the treatment of mania. Report of the Veterans administration and National Institute of Mental Health collaborative study group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 26: 146-153
119. Prien R F, Kupfer D J, Mansky P A, Small J G, Tuason V B, Voss C B, Johnson W E (1984) Drug therapy in the prevention of recurrences in unipolar and bipolar affective disorders. Report of the NIMH Collaborative Study Group comparing lithium carbonate, imipramine, and a lithium carbonate-imipramine combination. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41: 1096-1104
120. Rosa F W (1991) Spina bifida in infants of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 324: 674-677
121. Rubinsztein J S, Michael A, Paykel E S, Sahakian B J (2000) Cognitive impairment in remission in bipolar affective disorder. Psychol Med 361: 1025-1036
122. Sachs G S, Printz D J, Kahn D A, Carpenter D, Docherty J P (2000) The Expert Consensus Guideline Series: medication treatment of bipolar disorder 2000. Postgrad Med Special no.: 1-104
123. Sachs G S, Grossman F, Ghaemi S N, Okamoto A, Bowden C L (2002) Combination of a mood stabilizer with risperidone or haloperidol for treatment of acute mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of efficacy and safety. Am J Psychiatry 159: 1146-1154
124. Sajatovic M (2002) Treatment of bipolar disorder in older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17: 865-873
125. Salloum I M, Thase M E (2000) Impact of substance abuse on the course and treatment of bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2: 269-280
126. Samren E B, van Duijn C M, Christiaens G C, Hofman A, Lindhout D (1999) Antiepileptic drug regimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol 46: 739-746
127. Sato T, Bottlender R, Kleindienst N, Moller H J (2002) Syndromes and phenomenological subtypes underlying acute mania: a factor analytic study of 576 manic patients. Am J Psychiatry 159: 968-974
128. Scott J (1996) Cognitive therapy of affective disorders: a review. J Affect Disord 37: 1-11
129. Scott J, Pope M (2002) Nonadherence with mood stabilizers: prevalence and predictors. J Clin Psychiatry 63: 384-390
130. Scott J, Tacchi M J (2002) A feasibility study of the concordance therapy for individuals who are non-adherent with lithium. Bipolar Disord 4: 386-392
131. Scott J, Stanton B, Garland A, Ferrier I N (2000) Cognitive vulnerability in patients with bipolar disorder. Psychol Med 30: 467-472
132. Scott J, Garland A, Moorhead S (2001) A pilot study of cognitive therapy in bipolar disorders. Psychol Med 31: 459-467
133. Shekelle P G, Woolf S H, Eccles M, Grimshaw J (1999) Clinical Guidelines: developing guidelines. BMJ 318: 593-596
134. Smith L F, Whitfield M J (1995) Women's knowledge of taking oral contraceptive pills correctly and of emergency contraception: effect of providing information leaflets in general practice. Br J Gen Pract 45: 409-414
135. Sproule B A, Hardy B G, Shulman K I (2000) Differential pharmacokinetics of lithium in elderly patients. Drugs Aging 16: 165-177
136. Storosum J G, Elferink A J, van Zwieten B J, van den Brink W, Gersons B P, van Strik R, Broekmans A W (2001) Short-term efficacy of tricyclic antidepressants revisited: a meta-analytic study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 11: 173-180
137. Strakowski S M, McElroy S L, Keck P E Jr, West S A (1994) The Co-occurrence of mania with medical and other psychiatric disorders. Int J Psychiatry Med 24: 305-328
138. Strakowski S M, DelBello M P, Fleck D E, Arndt S (2000) The impact of substance abuse on the course of bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 48: 477-485
139. Suppes T, Webb A, Paul B, Carmody T, Kraemer H, Rush A J (1999) Clinical outcome in a randomized 1-year trial of clozapine versus treatment as usual for patients with treatment-resistant illness and a history of mania. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1164-1169
140. Suppes T, Dennehy E B, Swann A C, Bowden C L, Calabrese J R, Hirschfeld R M, Keck P E Jr, Sachs G S, Crismon M L, Toprac M G, Shon S P (2002) Report of the Texas Consensus Conference Panel on medication treatment of bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 63: 288-299
141. Swann A C, Bowden C L, Calabrese J R, Dilsaver S C, Morris D D (2002) Pattern of response to divalproex, lithium, or placebo in four naturalistic subtypes of mania. Neuropsychopharmacology 26: 530-536
142. Swartz H A, Frank E (2001) Psychotherapy for bipolar depression: a phase-specific treatment strategy? Bipolar Disord 3: 11-22
143. ten Have M, Vollebergh W, Bijl R, Nolen W A (2002) Bipolar disorder in the general population in the Netherlands (prevalence, consequences and care utilisation): results from the Netherlands mental health survey and incidence study (NEMESIS). J Affect Disord 68: 203-213
144. Terp I M, Mortensen P B (1998) Post-partum psychoses. Clinical diagnoses and relative risk of admission after parturition. Br J Psychiatry 172: 521-526
145. Thies-Flechtner K, Muller-Oerlinghausen B, Seibert W, Walther A, Greil W (1996) Effect of prophylactic treatment on suicide risk in patients with major affective disorders. Data from a randomized prospective trial. Pharmacopsychiatry 29: 103-107
146. Tohen M, Sanger T M, McElroy S L, Tollefson G D, Chengappa K N, Daniel D G, Petty F, Centorrino F, Wang R, Grundy S L, Greaney M G, Jacobs T G, David S R, Toma V (1999) Olanzapine versus placebo in the treatment of acute mania. Olanzapine HGEH Study Group. Am J Psychiatry 156: 702-709
147. Tohen M, Jacobs T G, Grundy S L, McElroy S L, Banov M C, Janicak P G, Sanger T, Risser R, Zhang F, Toma V, Francis J, Tollefson G D, Breier A (2000) Efficacy of olanzapine in acute bipolar mania: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Olanzipine HGGW Study Group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57: 841-849
148. Tohen M, Chengappa K N, Suppes T, Zarate C-A Jr, Calabrese J R, Bowden C L, Sachs G S, Kupfer D J, Baker R W, Risser R C, Keeter E L, Feldman P D, Tollefson G D, Breier A (2002) Efficacy of olanzapine in combination with valproate or lithium in the treatment of mania in patients partially nonresponsive to valproate or lithium monotherapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59: 62-69
149. Tondo L, Hennen J, Baldessarini R J (2001) Lower suicide risk with long-term lithium treatment in major affective illness: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 104: 163-172
150. Tyrer S P, Brittlebank A D (1993) Misdiagnosis of bipolar affective disorder as personality disorder. Can J Psychiatry 38: 587-589
151. UK ECT Review Group (2003) Electroconvulsive therapy - systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy and safety in depressive disorders. Lancet 361: 799-808
152. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (1992) Acute pain management: operative or medical procedures and trauma. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research Publications, Rockville, MD
153. van Leeuwen A M, Molders J, Sterkmans P, Mielants P, Martens C, Toussaint C, Hovent A M, Desseilles M F, Koch H, Devroye A, Parent M (1977) Droperidol in acutely agitated patients. A double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Nerv Ment Dis 164: 280-283
154. Wals M, Hillegers M H, Reichart C G, Ormel J, Nolen W A, Verhulst F C (2001) Prevalence of psychopathology in children of a bipolar parent. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40: 1094-1102
155. Wehr T A, Sack D A, Rosenthal N E (1987) Sleep reduction as a final common pathway in the genesis of mania. Am J Psychiatry 144: 201-204
156. Wheeldon T J, Robertson C, Eagles J M, Reid I C (1999) The views and outcomes of consenting and non-consenting patients receiving ECT. Psychol Med 29: 221-223
157. White E, Cheung P, Silverstone T (1993) Depot antipsychotics in bipolar affective disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 8: 119-122
158. Winokur G, Coryell W, Keller M, Endicott J, Akiskal H (1993) A prospective follow-up of patients with bipolar and primary unipolar affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50: 457-465
159. Young B K, Camicioli R, Ganzini L (1997) Neuropsychiatric adverse effects of antiparkinsonian drugs. Characteristics, evaluation and treatment. Drugs Aging 10: 367-383