Compassion fatigue: Communication and burnout toward social problems

Journalism and Mass Communication Quaterly

Volumn 73, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 687-707

  Kinnick, Katherine N ^a   Krugman, Dean M ^a   Cameron, Glen T ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0037875631     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769909607300314     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Christina Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1982).
2. Susan Meunchow and Susan S. Gilfillan, "Social Policy and the Media," in Children, Families and Government: Perspectives on American Social Policy, ed. Edward F. Zigler, Sharon L. Kagan, and Edgar Klugman (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 238.
3. Kathleen S. Kelly, Fund Raising and Public Relations: A Critical Analysis (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991).
4. Paul F. Lazarsfeld and Robert K. Merton, "Mass Communication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action," in The Communication of Ideas, ed. Lyman Bryson (NY: Harper & Row, 1951), 95-118.
5. Jerome C. Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature? Toward a Theoretical Foundation for the Helping Professions," Social Service Review 67 (September 1993): 406-58.
6. C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991); Martin L. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (January 1981): 121-37; Ezra Stotland, "Exploratory Investigations of Empathy," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 4, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1969); for reviews, see Nancy Eisenberg and Randy Lennon, "Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities," Psychological Bulletin 94 (July 1983): 100-31; and Francine Deutsch and Ronald A. Madle, "Empathy: Historic and Current Conceptualizations, Measurement, and a Cognitive Theoretical Perspective," Human Development 18 (1975): 267-87.
7. C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991); Martin L. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (January 1981): 121-37; Ezra Stotland, "Exploratory Investigations of Empathy," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 4, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1969); for reviews, see Nancy Eisenberg and Randy Lennon, "Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities," Psychological Bulletin 94 (July 1983): 100-31; and Francine Deutsch and Ronald A. Madle, "Empathy: Historic and Current Conceptualizations, Measurement, and a Cognitive Theoretical Perspective," Human Development 18 (1975): 267-87.
8. C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991); Martin L. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (January 1981): 121-37; Ezra Stotland, "Exploratory Investigations of Empathy," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 4, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1969); for reviews, see Nancy Eisenberg and Randy Lennon, "Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities," Psychological Bulletin 94 (July 1983): 100-31; and Francine Deutsch and Ronald A. Madle, "Empathy: Historic and Current Conceptualizations, Measurement, and a Cognitive Theoretical Perspective," Human Development 18 (1975): 267-87.
9. C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991); Martin L. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (January 1981): 121-37; Ezra Stotland, "Exploratory Investigations of Empathy," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 4, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1969); for reviews, see Nancy Eisenberg and Randy Lennon, "Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities," Psychological Bulletin 94 (July 1983): 100-31; and Francine Deutsch and Ronald A. Madle, "Empathy: Historic and Current Conceptualizations, Measurement, and a Cognitive Theoretical Perspective," Human Development 18 (1975): 267-87.
10. C. Daniel Batson, The Altruism Question (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1991); Martin L. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40 (January 1981): 121-37; Ezra Stotland, "Exploratory Investigations of Empathy," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 4, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (NY: Academic Press, 1969); for reviews, see Nancy Eisenberg and Randy Lennon, "Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities," Psychological Bulletin 94 (July 1983): 100-31; and Francine Deutsch and Ronald A. Madle, "Empathy: Historic and Current Conceptualizations, Measurement, and a Cognitive Theoretical Perspective," Human Development 18 (1975): 267-87.
11. C. Daniel Batson, "Affect and Altruism," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 89-125; Jane A. Piliavin, John F. Dovidio, Samuel L. Gaertner, and Russell D. Clark III, Emergency Intervention (NY: Academic Press, 1981).
12. C. Daniel Batson, "Affect and Altruism," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 89-125; Jane A. Piliavin, John F. Dovidio, Samuel L. Gaertner, and Russell D. Clark III, Emergency Intervention (NY: Academic Press, 1981).
13. C. Daniel Batson and Laura L. Shaw, "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 107-22; Robert B. Cialdini, "Altruism or Egoism? That is (Still) the Question," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 124-26; Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?"; Piliavin et al., Emergency Intervention; Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 442.
14. C. Daniel Batson and Laura L. Shaw, "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 107-22; Robert B. Cialdini, "Altruism or Egoism? That is (Still) the Question," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 124-26; Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?"; Piliavin et al., Emergency Intervention; Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 442.
15. C. Daniel Batson and Laura L. Shaw, "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 107-22; Robert B. Cialdini, "Altruism or Egoism? That is (Still) the Question," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 124-26; Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?"; Piliavin et al., Emergency Intervention; Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 442.
16. C. Daniel Batson and Laura L. Shaw, "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 107-22; Robert B. Cialdini, "Altruism or Egoism? That is (Still) the Question," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 124-26; Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?"; Piliavin et al., Emergency Intervention; Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 442.
17. C. Daniel Batson and Laura L. Shaw, "Evidence for Altruism: Toward a Pluralism of Prosocial Motives," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 107-22; Robert B. Cialdini, "Altruism or Egoism? That is (Still) the Question," Psychological Inquiry 2 (1991): 124-26; Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?"; Piliavin et al., Emergency Intervention; Wakefield, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 442.
18. Hoffman, "Is Altruism Part of Human Nature?" 133.
19. Ezra Stotland, Kenneth E. Mathews, Stanley E. Sherman, Robert O. Hansson, and Barbara Z. Richardson, Empathy, Fantasy and Helping (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979), 73-74.
20. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 146.
21. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 3-4; Ayala Pines and Elizabeth Aronson, Career Burnout: Causes & Cures (NY: The Free Press, 1988).
22. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 3-4; Ayala Pines and Elizabeth Aronson, Career Burnout: Causes & Cures (NY: The Free Press, 1988).
23. Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newberry Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Andrea J. Baker, "The Portrayal of AIDS in the Media: An analysis of articles in The New York Times," in The Social Dimensions of AIDS: Method and Theory, ed. Douglas A. Feldman and Thomas M. Johnson (NY: Praeger, 1986), 179-96.
24. Clarice N. Olien, Phillip J. Tichenor, and George A. Donohue, "Media Coverage and Social Movements," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newberry Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 139-63; Andrea J. Baker, "The Portrayal of AIDS in the Media: An analysis of articles in The New York Times," in The Social Dimensions of AIDS: Method and Theory, ed. Douglas A. Feldman and Thomas M. Johnson (NY: Praeger, 1986), 179-96.
25. David L. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News Formats on Social Policy," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (winter 1991): 3-21; Armond L. Mauss, Social Problems as Social Movements (Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippencott, 1975); A. Clay Schoenfeld, Robert F. Meier, and Robert J. Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem: The Press and the Environment," Social Problems 27 (October 1979): 38-55.
26. David L. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News Formats on Social Policy," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (winter 1991): 3-21; Armond L. Mauss, Social Problems as Social Movements (Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippencott, 1975); A. Clay Schoenfeld, Robert F. Meier, and Robert J. Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem: The Press and the Environment," Social Problems 27 (October 1979): 38-55.
27. David L. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News Formats on Social Policy," Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 35 (winter 1991): 3-21; Armond L. Mauss, Social Problems as Social Movements (Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippencott, 1975); A. Clay Schoenfeld, Robert F. Meier, and Robert J. Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem: The Press and the Environment," Social Problems 27 (October 1979): 38-55.
28. G. Ray Funkhouser, "The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study in the Dynamics of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (spring 1973): 63-75; Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, "The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 176-87; W. Russell Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," Public Opinion Quarterly 54 (summer 1990): 159-76; Michael J. Robinson, "Public Affairs Television and the Growth of Political Malaise: The Case of "The Selling of the Pentagon," American Political Science Review 70 (June 1976): 409-32.
29. G. Ray Funkhouser, "The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study in the Dynamics of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (spring 1973): 63-75; Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, "The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 176-87; W. Russell Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," Public Opinion Quarterly 54 (summer 1990): 159-76; Michael J. Robinson, "Public Affairs Television and the Growth of Political Malaise: The Case of "The Selling of the Pentagon," American Political Science Review 70 (June 1976): 409-32.
30. G. Ray Funkhouser, "The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study in the Dynamics of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (spring 1973): 63-75; Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, "The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 176-87; W. Russell Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," Public Opinion Quarterly 54 (summer 1990): 159-76; Michael J. Robinson, "Public Affairs Television and the Growth of Political Malaise: The Case of "The Selling of the Pentagon," American Political Science Review 70 (June 1976): 409-32.
31. G. Ray Funkhouser, "The Issues of the Sixties: An Exploratory Study in the Dynamics of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 37 (spring 1973): 63-75; Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, "The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media," Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (summer 1972): 176-87; W. Russell Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," Public Opinion Quarterly 54 (summer 1990): 159-76; Michael J. Robinson, "Public Affairs Television and the Growth of Political Malaise: The Case of "The Selling of the Pentagon," American Political Science Review 70 (June 1976): 409-32.
32. Hugh M. Culbertson and Guido H. Stempel, '"Media Malaise:" Explaining Personal Optimism and Societal Pessimism about Health Care," Journal of Communication (spring 1985): 180-90.
33. Lazarsfeld and Merton, "Mass Communication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action," 96.
34. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
35. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
36. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
37. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
38. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
39. Joseph Bourque, "Fed Up with Charity," Newsweek, 4 September 1989, 10; Anthony Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology - The Issue-Attention Cycle," Public Interest 28 (summer 1972): 28-50 ; Michael Gartner, "23 Million Tragedies," USA Today, 26 July 1994, sec. A, p. 11; Muenchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy," 237-38; Richard W. Pollay, "Campaigns, Change and Culture: On the Polluting Potential of Persuasion," in Information Campaigns: Balancing Social Values and Social Change, ed. Charles Salmon (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), 185-98; Katharine Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media in the Promotion of Mental Health, International Journal of Mental Health 18 (fall 1990): 40-46.
40. Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology," 2.
41. Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology," 40; Stephen Hilgartner and Charles L. Bosk, "The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 53-78; Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," 171-73.
42. Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology," 40; Stephen Hilgartner and Charles L. Bosk, "The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 53-78; Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," 171-73.
43. Downs, "Up and Down with Ecology," 40; Stephen Hilgartner and Charles L. Bosk, "The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model," American Journal of Sociology 94 (July 1988): 53-78; Neuman, "The Threshold of Public Attention," 171-73.
44. Hilgartner and Bosk, "The Rise and Fall of Social Problems," 59-60.
45. Michael L. Ray, Alan G. Sawyer, and Edward C. Strong, "Frequency Effects Revisited," Journal of Advertising Research 11 (February 1971): 14-20.
46. Charles K. Atkin, "Mass Media Information Campaign Effectiveness," in Public Information Campaigns, ed. Ronald E. Rice and William J. Paisley (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1981), 278.
47. James L. Baughman, The Republic of Mass Culture (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media," Studies of Broadcasting 9 (1974): 67-112; Martin H. Seiden, Access to the American Mind: The Impact of the New Mass Media (NY: Shapolsky Press, 1990); Michael R. Real, Super Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
48. James L. Baughman, The Republic of Mass Culture (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media," Studies of Broadcasting 9 (1974): 67-112; Martin H. Seiden, Access to the American Mind: The Impact of the New Mass Media (NY: Shapolsky Press, 1990); Michael R. Real, Super Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
49. James L. Baughman, The Republic of Mass Culture (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media," Studies of Broadcasting 9 (1974): 67-112; Martin H. Seiden, Access to the American Mind: The Impact of the New Mass Media (NY: Shapolsky Press, 1990); Michael R. Real, Super Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
50. James L. Baughman, The Republic of Mass Culture (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992); Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept of Powerful Mass Media," Studies of Broadcasting 9 (1974): 67-112; Martin H. Seiden, Access to the American Mind: The Impact of the New Mass Media (NY: Shapolsky Press, 1990); Michael R. Real, Super Media (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989).
51. Benjamin H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983); James B. Lemert, "Content Duplication by the Networks in Competing Evening Newscasts," Journalism Quarterly 51 (summer 1974): 238-44; Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept," 67-112; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: Free Press, 1981); Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1973).
52. Benjamin H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983); James B. Lemert, "Content Duplication by the Networks in Competing Evening Newscasts," Journalism Quarterly 51 (summer 1974): 238-44; Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept," 67-112; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: Free Press, 1981); Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1973).
53. Benjamin H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983); James B. Lemert, "Content Duplication by the Networks in Competing Evening Newscasts," Journalism Quarterly 51 (summer 1974): 238-44; Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept," 67-112; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: Free Press, 1981); Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1973).
54. Benjamin H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983); James B. Lemert, "Content Duplication by the Networks in Competing Evening Newscasts," Journalism Quarterly 51 (summer 1974): 238-44; Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept," 67-112; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: Free Press, 1981); Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1973).
55. Benjamin H. Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983); James B. Lemert, "Content Duplication by the Networks in Competing Evening Newscasts," Journalism Quarterly 51 (summer 1974): 238-44; Noelle-Neumann, "Return to the Concept," 67-112; David L. Paletz and Robert M. Entman, Media, Power, Politics (NY: Free Press, 1981); Herbert I. Schiller, The Mind Managers (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1973).
56. John C. Maloney and Eugene P. Schonfeld, "Social Change and Attitude Change," in Processes and Phenomena of Social Change, ed. Gerald Zaltman (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1973), 200.
57. "Violence Losing Its Power to Shock," The Atlanta Constitution, 19 May 1993, sec. A, p. 10.
58. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News," 17; John M. Phelan, Mediaworld: Programming the Public (NY: Seabury Press, 1977).
59. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News," 17; John M. Phelan, Mediaworld: Programming the Public (NY: Seabury Press, 1977).
60. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News," 17; Mark M. Miller and Stephen D. Reese, "Media Dependency as Interaction: Effects of Exposure and Reliance on Political Activity and Efficacy," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 227-48.
61. Altheide, "The Impact of Television News," 17; Mark M. Miller and Stephen D. Reese, "Media Dependency as Interaction: Effects of Exposure and Reliance on Political Activity and Efficacy," Communication Research 9 (April 1982): 227-48.
62. Maxwell E. McCombs and Laura Washington, "Opinion Surveys Offer Conflicting Clues as to How Public Views Press," Presstime, February 1983,4-9; Charles D. Whitney, The Media and the People: Americans' Experience with the News Media: A Fifty-Year Review (NY: Gannett Center for Media Studies, 1985).
63. Maxwell E. McCombs and Laura Washington, "Opinion Surveys Offer Conflicting Clues as to How Public Views Press," Presstime, February 1983,4-9; Charles D. Whitney, The Media and the People: Americans' Experience with the News Media: A Fifty-Year Review (NY: Gannett Center for Media Studies, 1985).
64. Whitney, The Media and the People, 43-44.
65. James B. Lemert, Does Mass Communication Change Public Opinion After All? (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1981); Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 43-44.
66. James B. Lemert, Does Mass Communication Change Public Opinion After All? (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1981); Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 43-44.
67. Lemert, Does Mass Communication Change Public Opinion, 215-16.
68. Robinson, "Public Affairs Television," 420.
69. Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 43.
70. James E. Grunig, ed., Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1992), 135.
71. Robert Dvorchak, "Donors Slow to Respond to Rwandan Horror, Charities Say," The Atlanta Constitution, 8 June, 1994, sec. A, p. 9.
72. E. J. Epstein, News from Nowhere: The Selection of Reality in Television News Programs (NY: Random House, 1973); Phelan, Mediaworld, 40-41; Schoenfeld, Meier, and Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem," 51.
73. E. J. Epstein, News from Nowhere: The Selection of Reality in Television News Programs (NY: Random House, 1973); Phelan, Mediaworld, 40-41; Schoenfeld, Meier, and Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem," 51.
74. E. J. Epstein, News from Nowhere: The Selection of Reality in Television News Programs (NY: Random House, 1973); Phelan, Mediaworld, 40-41; Schoenfeld, Meier, and Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem," 51.
75. Meunchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy and the Media," 232-33; Schoenfeld, Meier, and Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem," 52.
76. Meunchow and Gilfillan, "Social Policy and the Media," 232-33; Schoenfeld, Meier, and Griffin, "Constructing a Social Problem," 52.
77. Julius Gould and William L. Kolb, eds., Dictionary of the Social Sciences (NY: UNESCO, 1964); Philip Kotler, "The Elements of Social Action," American Behavioral Scientist (May 1971): 691-717.
78. Julius Gould and William L. Kolb, eds., Dictionary of the Social Sciences (NY: UNESCO, 1964); Philip Kotler, "The Elements of Social Action," American Behavioral Scientist (May 1971): 691-717.
79. Lydia Saad, "Most Important Problem: Concern Grows about Health Care, Federal Deficit," The Gallup Poll Monthly 328 (January 1993): 31-40.
80. Self-generation of issues proved to be unwieldy because it yielded issues which did not fit the criteria for social problems and required interviewers to adapt question phraseology to suit the issues identified. In addition, the wider range of issues that were identified through this process meant that each had a smaller n than would be obtained through focusing on a discrete number of researcher-provided issues, a consideration when statistical analysis will be employed.
81. This item was worded as follows: "Some people might say that the amount of media coverage they see about these issues has sensitized them toward the issues; while other people might say that the amount of coverage has had the opposite effect, and casued them to be burned out on the issues. On a scale of 1 to 5, where 5 is highly sensitive and 1 is burned out, how has the amount of media coverage about [homelessness/violent crime/child abuse/AIDS] made you feel?" The authors use the terms "burnout" and "compassion fatigue" synonymously. This item uses the word "burnout because it is far more familiar and colloquial.
82. Two additional items assessing emotional sensitivity were employed as a reliability check with the burnout item. One item asked respondents to think about their reaction to news reports about each of the issues and rate, on a five point scale, the extent to which news reports aroused their emotions. The second item asked respondents to rate, on a five-point scale, if they believe what they have seen in the media has made them feel more compassionate or less compassionate about each of the four issues.
83. Survey items corresponding to these predictors are as follows: Likelihood of watching a program about the issue: "If you learned that a program about each of these issues was going to be on television, tell me how likely you would be to watch it, where a 5 means you would definitely watch the program, and a 1 means you would definitely not watch the program. A program about [violent crime/child abuse/homelessness/AIDS]?"" Emotional arousal to news reports about the issue: "Next, I'd like you to think about your reaction when you see or hear news stories about these issues. Please rate each of the following on a scale of 1 to 5, where a 5 means news reports about the issue arouse your emotions, and 1 means news reports about the issue do not arouse your emotions." [Asked for each issue]. Feelings that what one has seen in the media has decreased compassion: "And again on a scale of 1 to 5, where 5 is more compassionate and 1 is less compassionate, do you believe that what you have seen in the media in the past few years has made you feel more compassionate or less compassionate toward the following? [violent crime/child abuse/homelessness/AIDS]." Interest in the issue: "Next, I'd like you to tell me how interested you are in each of these issues on a scale of 1 to 5, where 5 is feeling very interested in hearing about the issue and 1 is feeling tired of hearing about the issue."
84. Morton M. Hunt, The Compassionate Beast (NY: Anchor Books, 1990).
85. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 146; Martin E. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death (San Francison: Freeman, 1974); Gifford Weary, "Depression and Sensitivity to Social Information," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 207-30; Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 44-46.
86. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 146; Martin E. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death (San Francison: Freeman, 1974); Gifford Weary, "Depression and Sensitivity to Social Information," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 207-30; Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 44-46.
87. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 146; Martin E. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death (San Francison: Freeman, 1974); Gifford Weary, "Depression and Sensitivity to Social Information," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 207-30; Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 44-46.
88. Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring, 146; Martin E. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death (San Francison: Freeman, 1974); Gifford Weary, "Depression and Sensitivity to Social Information," in Affect and Social Behavior, ed. Bert S. Moore and Alice M. Isen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 207-30; Whitehorn, "The Use of the Media," 44-46.
89. Fay Lomax Cook, Who Should Be Helped? Public Support for Social Services (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Hunt, The Compassionate Beast, 182-83; Irving M. Piliavin, Judith Rodin, and Jane A. Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism, "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (December 1969): 289-99; Lauren Wispe, "Toward an Integration," in Altruism, Sympathy and Helping, ed. Lauren Wispe (NY: Academic Press, 1978), 312-13.
90. Fay Lomax Cook, Who Should Be Helped? Public Support for Social Services (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Hunt, The Compassionate Beast, 182-83; Irving M. Piliavin, Judith Rodin, and Jane A. Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism, "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (December 1969): 289-99; Lauren Wispe, "Toward an Integration," in Altruism, Sympathy and Helping, ed. Lauren Wispe (NY: Academic Press, 1978), 312-13.
91. Fay Lomax Cook, Who Should Be Helped? Public Support for Social Services (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Hunt, The Compassionate Beast, 182-83; Irving M. Piliavin, Judith Rodin, and Jane A. Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism, "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (December 1969): 289-99; Lauren Wispe, "Toward an Integration," in Altruism, Sympathy and Helping, ed. Lauren Wispe (NY: Academic Press, 1978), 312-13.
92. Fay Lomax Cook, Who Should Be Helped? Public Support for Social Services (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1979); Hunt, The Compassionate Beast, 182-83; Irving M. Piliavin, Judith Rodin, and Jane A. Piliavin, "Good Samaritanism, "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 13 (December 1969): 289-99; Lauren Wispe, "Toward an Integration," in Altruism, Sympathy and Helping, ed. Lauren Wispe (NY: Academic Press, 1978), 312-13.
93. Robert Kellner and Brian F. Sheffield, "A Self-Rating Scale of Distress," Psychological Medicine 3 (January 1973): 88-100; Trina Sego and Patricia A. Stout, "Anxiety Associated with Social Issues: The Development of a Scale to Measure an Antecedent Construct" (paper submitted for presentation at the Association for Consumer Research Annual Conference, October 1993).
94. Robert Kellner and Brian F. Sheffield, "A Self-Rating Scale of Distress," Psychological Medicine 3 (January 1973): 88-100; Trina Sego and Patricia A. Stout, "Anxiety Associated with Social Issues: The Development of a Scale to Measure an Antecedent Construct" (paper submitted for presentation at the Association for Consumer Research Annual Conference, October 1993).
95. See note 18.
96. Joseph T. Klapper, The Effects of Mass Communication (NY: Free Press, 1960).
97. McCombs and Washington, "Opinion Surveys Offer Conflicting Clues, 8-9"; Whitney, The Media and the People, 14.
98. McCombs and Washington, "Opinion Surveys Offer Conflicting Clues, 8-9"; Whitney, The Media and the People, 14.