THREE PIONEERS OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN AMERICA, 1843-1890: Lewis H. Morgan, John Bascom, and Joseph LeConte

History of Psychology

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 14-51

  Johnston, Timothy D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT GREENSBORO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; PSYCHOLOGY; UNITED STATES;

HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; PSYCHOLOGY, COMPARATIVE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0037842112     PISSN: 10934510     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/1093-4510.6.1.14     Document Type: Article

References (188)

1. The history of comparative psychology after 1894 is thoroughly discussed by. Donald A.D. Comparative Psychology in the Twentieth Century (1984), Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, PA Dewsbury reminds us that although learning was always a prominent focus of research in comparative psychology, other topics have engaged the attention of researchers in this field throughout its history (see especially chap. 6, p. 207 et seq.). Other useful sources are:
2. Gilbert G. "Comparative Psychology and Ethology,". In: Eliot H. (Ed). The First Century of Experimental Psychology (1979), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 147-173 Dewsbury, "A Brief History of the Study of Animal Behavior in North America,"
3. In: Patrick P., Bateson G., and Peter H.K. (Eds). Perspectives in Ethology., Volume 8: Whither Ethology? (1989), Plenum, New York 85-122
4. Dewsbury. "Triumph and Tribulation in the History of American Comparative Psychology". Journal of Comparative Psychology 106 (1992) 3-19 The view that comparative psychology did not exist in America prior to the 1890s is reflected even in very early historical reviews. See, for example
5. Wesley M. "Some Aspects of the Development of Comparative Psychology". Science, New Series 19 (1904) 745-757
6. Warden C.J. "The Development of Modern Comparative Psychology". Quarterly Review of Biology 3 (1928) 486-512 Warden divides the history of comparative psychology into "the anecdotal movement" (primarily Darwin and Romanes) and "the experimental period" (starting with Lloyd Morgan).
7. William J. Principles of Psychology 2 vols (1890), Holt, New York
8. James M. Cattell, "The Advance of Psychology," Science, New Series, 8 (1898): 533-541, p. 536; Cattell, "Address of the President," in Ninth International Congress of Psychology, Proceedings and Papers (Princeton, NJ: Psychological Review, 1930), 12.
9. Edwin G.B. A History of Experimental Psychology. 2nd ed. (1950), Century Co, New York (1st ed. 1929), 493 et seq. Later, Boring described the work of pre-Jamesian psychologists as not "functionally important"; Boring, "The Influence of Evolutionary Theory Upon American Psychological Thought," in Evolutionary Thought in America, ed. Stow Persons (New York: George Braziller, 1956), 268-298, p. 294, note 9.
10. Ernest R.H. Psychology in America: A Historical Survey (1987), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, San Diego, CA 5-6
11. Thomas C.U. Elements of Intellectual Philosophy (1827), William Hyde, Portland, ME
12. Jay W.F. American Psychology Before William James (1939), Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ provides a useful inventory of pre-Jamesian psychological writers and summaries of their works, but his book contains little discussion or scholarly interpretation
13. The phrase New Psychology seems to have been coined by John Dewey as the title of a talk given to the Metaphysical Club at Johns Hopkins University in March 1884. John D. "The New Psychology,". Andover Review 2 (1884) 278-289 see Jo Ann Boydston, "A Note on the Texts," in John Dewey: The Early Works, 1882-1898, vol. 1 (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press), lxxiii. G. Stanley Hall used the same title for his talk to the group that October. The phrase soon became widely used to refer both to the empirical approach pioneered in the last two decades of the century and to the pioneers themselves.
14. G. Stanley Hall, "The New Psychology," Andover Review 3 (1885): 120-135, 239-248. See John M. O'Donnell, The Origins of Behaviorism: American Psychology, 1870-1920 (New York: New York University Press, 1985), chap. 1;
15. David E.L. "Telling Likely Stories: The Rhetoric of the New Psychology, 1880-1920,". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 23 (1987) 315-331
16. Alfred H.F. "Contributions of American Mental Philosophers to Psychology in the United States,". History of Psychology 3 (2000) 1-19
17. Two other very useful reviews are. Rand B.E. "The Origins of American Academic Psychology,". In: Brozek J. (Ed). Explorations in the History of Psychology in the United States (1984), Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg, PA 17-60
18. Graham R. "'To Know Our Fellow Men to Do Them Good': American Psychology's Enduring Moral Project,". History of the Human Sciences 8 (1995) 1-24
19. See also. Davis R.C. "American Psychology, 1800-1885". Psychological Review 43 (1936) 471-493
20. Rieber R.W. "The Americanization of Psychology Before William James,". In: Rieber R.W., and Salzinger K. (Eds). Psychology: Theoretical-Historical Perspectives (1980), Academic Press, New York 103-123
21. See Fuchs, "Contributions of American Mental Philosophers." Thomas Reid's three major works are An Inquiry Into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764), Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (1785), and Essays on the Active Powers of Man (1788); see. William H. The Works of Thomas Reid 2 vols (1863), Maclachlan and Stewart, Edinburgh, Scotland (facsimile edition, Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press, 1994).
22. The first volume of Dugald Stewart's Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind (London: A. Strahan) was published in 1792. The works cited are Upham, Elements of Intellectual Philosophy;. Thomas C.U. Abridgement of Mental Philosophy (1861), Harper, New York
23. Francis W. Elements of Intellectual Philosophy (1854), Phillips, Sampson, Boston
24. Laurens P.H. Rational Psychology or, The Subjective Idea and the Objective Law of All Intelligence (1848), Derby, Miller, Auburn, NY
25. Joseph H. Mental Philosophy, Including the Intellect, Sensibilities, and Will (1857), Gould and Lincoln, Boston
26. James R. Brief Outline of an Analysis of the Human Intellect (1865), Lippincott, Philadelphia
27. Noah P. The Human Intellect, With an Introduction Upon Psychology and the Soul (1868), Scribner, New York
28. Richards, "'To Know Our Fellow Men'."
29. On the intellectual response to Darwin's theory, see especially. James R.M. The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms With Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870-1900 (1979), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
30. Ferenc M.S. The Divided Mind of Protestant America, 1880-1930 (1982), University of Alabama Press, University
31. Frederick G. "The Impact of Darwinian Evolution on Protestant Theology in the Nineteenth Century,". In: David C.L., and Ronald L.N. (Eds). God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science (1986), University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles 369-390
32. Older works that remain of interest include. Bert J. Loewenberg, "The Reaction of American Scientists to Darwinism". American Historical Review 38 (1933) 687-701
33. Loewenberg. "The Controversies Over Evolution in New England, 1859-1873,". New England Quarterly 8 (1935) 232-257
34. Max H.F. "Evolution in American Philosophy,". Philosophical Review 56 (1947) 357-373
35. Christopher I. The Poetics of Natural History: From John Bartram to William James (1999), Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ 260-269
36. Louis M. The Metaphysical Club (2001), Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York 117-148
37. Robert C. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844), J. Churchill, London Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Philosophie Zoologique Paris, 1809), trans. by
38. Hugh E. Zoological Philosophy (1984), University of Chicago Press, Chicago
39. Herbert S. Principles of Psychology (1855), Williams and Norgate, London
40. Moore, The. Post-Darwinian Controversies, 19ff.
41. Ibid., chap. 10.
42. Peter J.B. The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades Around 1900 (1982), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore chap. 3
43. Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies; Gregory, "The Impact of Darwinian Evolution."
44. Charles R.D. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871), John Murray, London
45. Auguste Comte, The Positive Philosophy, 2 vols., trans. Harriet Martineau (New York: W. Gowans, 1853). Cashdollar suggested that Comte's philosophy was known in America primarily from secondary sources, in particular the work of James McCosh, the Scottish emigrant who came to America as president of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1868. Charles D. Cashdollar. "Auguste Comte and the American Reformed Theologians". Journal of the History of Ideas 39 (1978) 61-79
46. James M. The Method of Divine Government, Physical and Moral (1855), R. Carter, New York
47. Richard W.B. The Spirit of System: Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology (1977), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
48. On the American embrace of Lamarck and Spencer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, see Moore, The Post-Darwinian Controversies, chaps. 6 and 7; Bowler, The Eclipse of Darwinism, chap. 4;. George S. "Lamarckianism in American Social Science, 1890-1915". Journal of the History of Ideas 23 (1962) 239-256
49. Edward L. Youmans (1821-1887) was the founding publisher of Popular Science Monthly, a widely read periodical that published both technical and popular scientific articles as well as reviews of books on scientific and philosophical subjects. He founded Appleton's International Scientific Series and was a vigorous promoter of Herbert Spencer's books, arranging for their U.S. publication and organizing a farewell banquet for Spencer at Delmonico's Restaurant in New York at the end of his American tour in 1882. John Fiske called him America's "apostle of evolution.". Mark P. "Youmans, Edward Livingstone,". In: John A.G., and Mark C.C. (Eds). American National Biography vol. 24 (1999), Oxford University Press, New York 143-144 John Fiske (1842-1901) wrote a number of books and articles defending and promoting evolution to a general readership; see, for example
50. Fiske. "The Triumph of Darwinism,". North American Review 124 (1877) 90-106
51. Excursions of an Evolutionist (1884), Houghton Mifflin, Boston
52. The Destiny of Man Viewed in the Light of His Origin (1884), Houghton, Mifflin, Boston Henry Ward Beecher (1818-1887), a popular Congregationalist preacher, incorporated Darwinism and Comtean philosophy into his sermons and lectures, later published as
53. Evolution and Religion (1883), Fords, Howard, and Hulbert, New York See Moore, The. Post-Darwinian Controversies, for further information on these three men.
54. For biographical information on Morgan, see. Carl R. Lewis Henry Morgan: American Scholar (1960), University of Chicago Press, Chicago Thomas R. Trautmann, "Morgan, Lewis Henry," American National Biography Online, retrieved September 1, 2001, from_http://www.anb.org/articles/14/14-00423.html.
55. Thomas R.T., and Karl S.K. The Library of Lewis Henry Morgan (1994), American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia published as Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 84, pts. 6 and 7.
56. Aquarius [Lewis Henry Morgan], "Mind or Instinct: An Inquiry Concerning the Manifestations of Mind by the Lower Animals," The Knickerbocker, 22 (1843): 414-420, 507-515. For reasons that are not evident, Morgan submitted his article under the pseudonym of C.E. Shepherd; Lewis Gaylord Clark (editor of The Knickerbocker) to Lewis Henry Morgan, 30 October 1843, Lewis Henry Morgan Papers, Correspondence, Box I (1839-1854), Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York. See Timothy D. Johnston, "An Early Manuscript in the History of American Comparative Psychology: Lewis Henry Morgan's 'Animal Psychology' (1857)," History of Psychology, 5 (2002): 6, 323-355, note 7.
57. Lewis H.M. The American Beaver and His Works (1868), J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia reprint edition, New York: Burt Franklin, 1970
58. George J.R. Animal Intelligence (1881), Kegan Paul and Trench, London
59. William P. Natural Theology (1802), R. Faulder, London Paley's argument is that just as a complex mechanism like a watch implies a watchmaker, so complex biological organisms imply a creator
60. Knight D. "Are There Any Instincts?". Journal of Abnormal Psychology 14 (1919) 307-311
61. Zing-Yang K. "Giving Up Instincts in Psychology,". Journal of Philosophy 18 (1921) 645-664 Dunlap and Kuo were primarily arguing against the instinct theory of William McDougall, although Kuo at least argued that the concept of instinct in whatever form was scientifically indefensible; see
62. Krantz D.L., and Allen D. "The Rise and Fall of McDougall's Instinct Doctrine,". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 3 (1967) 326-338
63. Gottlieb G. "Zing-Yang Kuo: Radical Scientific Philosopher and Innovative Experimenter (1898-1970),". Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 80 (1972) 1-10
64. Morgan's contributions to anthropology are discussed in. Fortes M. Kinship and the Social Order: The Legacy of Lewis Henry Morgan (1969), Aldine, Chicago
65. Service E.R. "The Mind of Lewis H. Morgan,". Current Anthropology 22 (1981) 25-43
66. Trautmann T.R. Lewis Henry Morgan and the Invention of Kinship (1987), University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles
67. Tooker E. "Lewis H. Morgan and His Contemporaries,". American Anthropologist 94 (1992) 357-375
68. Feeley-Harnik G. "'The Mystery of Life in All Its Forms': Religious Dimensions of Culture in Early American Anthropology,". In: Mizruchi S.L. (Ed). Religion and Cultural Studies (2001), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 140-191
69. Morgan L.H. Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress From Savagery Through Barbarism to Civilization (1877), Holt, New York
70. Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois, (Rochester, NY: Sage & Brother, 1851, reprint edition, New York: Corinth Books, 1962).
71. Morgan, The American Beaver, Preface, 323-355.
72. Trautmann, Lewis Henry, Morgan, 24.
73. For example. Wilson D.E., and Ruff S. The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals (1999), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC 548 characterize Morgan as "arguably the first American ethologist" and describe his book as a milestone in the study of animal behavior. See also Dewsbury, "A Brief History," 88.
74. Reviews of Morgan's book appeared in the following places (all are anonymous):. American Naturalist 2 (1868) 156-158
75. The Nation 6 (1868) 176
76. The Atlantic Monthly 21 (1868) 512
77. The North American Review 106 (1868) 725-727
78. Resek, Lewis Henry Morgan, 61; "Origin and History of the 'Club,'" Lewis Henry Morgan Papers, Box 22, Folder 43, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York. For an annotated transcription of the 1857 manuscript, see Johnston, "An Early Manuscript."
79. "Animal Psychology," Lewis Henry Morgan Papers, Box 22, Folder 41, Rush Rhees Library, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, 1.
80. Ibid., 27-28.
81. Ibid., 27.
82. Morgan, "Mind or Instinct," 515; Morgan, The American Beaver, 251.
83. Morgan, The American Beaver, 256, 284.
84. Morgan, "Mind or Instinct," 515
85. Morgan, The American Beaver, 283-284.
86. Morgan, "Animal Psychology," 21.
87. Morgan, League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee;
88. Morgan. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinities of the Human Family (1871), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
89. Morgan, Ancient Society; see Trautmann, Morgan and the Invention of Kinship, 267-271, for a complete bibliography of Morgan's writings.
90. Morgan, "Animal Psychology," 23-24; The American Beaver, 281-282.
91. Adam K. "The Development of Lewis Henry Morgan's Evolutionism,". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 21 (1985) 3-22 Trautmann, Lewis Henry Morgan, 32
92. Chadbourne P.A. Instinct: Its Office in the Animal Kingdom and Its Relation to the Higher Powers in Man (1872), G.P. Putnam and Sons, New York
93. Morgan L.H. "Chadbourne on Instinct,". The Nation 14 (1872) 291-292
94. For biographical information on Bascom, see. Bascom J. Things Learned by Living (1913), G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York & London
95. Robinson S. John Bascom, Prophet (1922), G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York
96. R. Douglas Geivett, "Bascom, John," American National Biography Online, retrieved August 21, 2001, from http://www.anb.org/articles/20/20-00049.html. For a list of Bascom's books, articles, addresses, and sermons, see Bascom, Things Learned by Living, 212-228.
97. In Things Learned by Living, 51-52, Bascom reported that in 1850 he "went up to Rochester to study law ... [and] spent eight months in a law office." He would therefore have lived in Rochester at the same time as Morgan was practicing law in the city, and it seems at least plausible that the two men may have met, especially given their mutual interests and Morgan's wide circle of intellectual acquaintances. However, there are no letters from Bascom in the Morgan manuscript collection at the University of Rochester, and no letters from Morgan in Bascom's papers, either at the University of Wisconsin or at Williams College. There is also no listing for Bascom in the Rochester city directories for 1850 or 1851 (Lois Gauch, Rochester Historical Society, personal communication, February 12, 2002).
98. Hickok, Rational Psychology; Fay, American Psychology;. Bare J.K. "Laurens Perseus Hickok: Philosopher, Theologian, and Psychologist,". In: Kimball G.A., and Wertheimer M. (Eds). Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology vol. 3 (1991), American Psychological Association and Erlbaum, Washington, DC, and Mahwah, NJ 1-15
99. Bascom J. "Laurens Perseus Hickok,". American Journal of Psychology 19 (1908) 359-373
100. Quotations are from Bascom, Things Learned By Living, 120, 120-21, viii, 150.
101. Hall G.S. Life and Confessions of a Psychologist (1923), D. Appleton, New York 157
102. Bascom J. Principles of Psychology (1869), G.P. Putnam & Son, New York Bascom, Things Learned by Living, 160-161.
103. Bascom J. "The Relation of Intuitions to Thought and Theology". American Presbyterian & Theological Review 15 (1866) 272-291
104. Bascom. "Intuitive Ideas and Their Relation to Knowledge". Biobliotheca Sacra 23 (1866) 1-48
105. see. Werkmeister W.H. A History of Philosophical Ideas in America (1949), Ronald Press, New York 87-95
106. Jones R.A. "John Bascom 1827-1911: Anti-Positivism and Intuitionism in American Sociology,". American Quarterly 24 (1972) 501-522
107. Bascom, Principles of Psychology, 2. Subsequent page references are to this work. For Bascom's views on evolutionary theory, see. Bascom. "Darwin's Theory of the Origin of Species". American Presbyterian Review, 3rd Series 11 (1871) 349-379
108. "Evolution, As Advocated by Herbert Spencer". Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review 1 (1872) 496-515
109. Morgan C.L. An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (1894), Walter Scott, London
110. Thorndike E.L. Animal Intelligence (1911), McMillan, New York
111. Bascom J. "Instinct". Bibliotheca Sacra 28 (1871) 654-685 Bascom published 30 articles in Bibliotheca Sacra, the last 2 of them appearing in 1911, the year of his death.
112. Bascom, Principles of Psychology, 223.
113. Bascom, "Instinct," 660.
114. Ibid., 660-661.
115. These three classes of activity in living things are borrowed from the classically defined divisions of the soul into vegetative, sensitive, and rational functions, a distinction that goes back to Aristotle and informed much of medieval and early modern psychology. See. Haren M. Medieval Thought: The Western Intellectual Tradition From Antiquity to the 13th Century (1985), St. Martin's Press, New York The quotation that follows is from Bascom, "Instinct," 668.
116. Bascom, Instinct, 668.
117. Wallace A.R. "The Philosophy of Birds' Nests". Intellectual Observer 11 (1867) 413-420 The quotation that follows is from Bascom, "Instinct," 672.
118. Bascom, "Instinct," 685.
119. Bascom, Things Learned By Living, 60.
120. Bascom J. Comparative Psychology or, the Growth and Grades of Intelligence (1878), G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York reissued as
121. The Growth and Grades of Intelligence, or Comparative Psychology (1894), G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York with an addendum.
122. Paley, Natural Theology, chap. 18;. Kirby W. On the Power Wisdom and Goodness of God as Manifested in the Creation of Animals, and in Their History, Habits, and Instincts (7th Bridgewater Treatise) (1835), Pickering, London Chadbourne, Instinct, (see note 49);
123. Chabourne. "Design in Nature". Princeton Review 1 (1878) 272-303 It is interesting that Chadbourne (who had also moved from Williams to serve as president at Wisconsin from 1866 to 1870) was chosen in preference to Bascom to succeed Mark Hopkins as president of Williams College in 1872. Bascom seems to have been the preferred candidate of the faculty, but both Hopkins and the board of trustees considered him too liberal in his religious views and selected the safely conservative Chadbourne instead. Stan W. Jorgensen, "A Passage of Faith: The Thought of John Bascom (1827-1911) and His Intellectual Successors" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1976), 189. On the contributions of natural theology to the study of animal behavior in the 19th century, see
124. Richards R.J. "Instinct and Intelligence in British Natural Theology: Some Contributions to Darwin's Theory of the Evolution of Behavior". Journal of the History of Biology 14 (1981) 193-230
125. Romanes G.J. Mental Evolution in Animals (1883), Kegan Paul, Trench and Co, London Morgan, Introduction to Comparative Psychology;
126. Watson J.B. Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (1914), Henry Holt, New York
127. Textbooks of comparative psychology from Lloyd Morgan to the present have generally ignored plants and microorganisms. One exception is. Maier N.R.F., and Schneirla T.C. Principles of Animal Psychology (1935), McGraw-Hill, New York despite the title of their book, which appears to restrict it to animals, Maier and Schneirla devote their first chapter to plants and protista. Bascom paid careful attention to the responses of sensitive and insectivorous plants, based largely on Darwin's two books:
128. Darwin C.R. The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants (1865), Longman, Green, London
129. Darwin. Insectivorous Plants (1875), John Murray, London
130. Bascom, Comparative Psychology, 2. Subsequent page references are to this work.
131. It should be noted that although these two problems are sharply distinguished today, that distinction was not clearly made until Weismann's work at the end of the 19th century: e.g.,. Wesimann A. The Germ Plasm: A Theory of Heredity (1893), Scribner's, New York see
132. Churchill F.B. "From Heredity Theory to Vererbung:, The Transmission Problem, 1850-1915". Isis 78 (1987) 337-364 For Bascom, as for his contemporaries, heredity and development were simply two sides of the same question: How are complex characteristics passed from parent to offspring?
133. Darwin C.R. The Variation in Plants and Animals Under Domestication (1868), John Murray, London chap. 27: "Provisional Hypothesis of Pangenesis."
134. See. Johnston T.D. "The Persistence of Dichotomies in the Study of Behavioral Development". Developmental Review 7 (1987) 149-182
135. Nijhout H.F. "Metaphors and the Role of Genes in Development". BioEssays 12 (1990) 441-446
136. Oyama S. The Ontogeny of Information. 2nd ed. (2000), Duke University Press, Durham, NC
137. Spalding D.A. "Instinct, With Original Observations on Young Animals". MacMillan's Magazine 27 (1873) 282-293
138. Lewes G.H. "Instinct". Nature 7 (1873) 437-438 This Lamarckian idea, also known as use-inheritance, originated with Herbert Spencer and was widely accepted by naturalists in the late 19th century. Romanes distinguished between two classes of instincts on the basis of whether they had originated from natural selection ("primary instincts") or were the inherited result of habits ("secondary instincts"). Romanes, Mental Evolution in Animals, 177. See
139. Boakes R. From Darwin to Behaviorism: Psychology and the Minds of Animals (1984), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 204
140. Richards R.J. Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (1987), University of Chicago Press, Chicago 90ff
141. Johnston T.D. "The Influence of Weismann's Theory of the Germ Plasm on the Dichotomy Between Innate and Learned Behavior". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 31 (1995) 115-128
142. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence;. Watson J.B. "Psychology As the Behaviorist Views It". Psychological Review 20 (1913) 158-177 On associationism in the history of psychology, see
143. Young R.M. Mind, Brain, and Adaptation in the Nineteenth Century. 2nd ed. (1990), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
144. Jones, "John Bascom 1827-1911."
145. Galton F. Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry Into Its Laws and Consequences (1869), Macmillan, London
146. Bascom J. Science, Philosophy and Religion (1872), G.P. Putnam & Sons, New York
147. Bascom. Evolution and Religion, Or Faith as a Part of a Complete Cosmic System (1897), G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York
148. Bascom, Things Learned By Living, 169. A search of various sources has identified no reviews of this book in either its 1878 or its 1894 editions.
149. Joseph LeConte, "Evolution in Relation to Materialism," Princeton Review, 4th series, 7 (1881): 149-174, p. 169.
150. Joseph LeConte, "Man's Place in Nature," Princeton Review, 4th Series, 2 (1878): 776-803, p. 785.
151. For biographical information on LeConte, see The Autobiography of Joseph LeConte, (1903), Documenting the American South Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, retrieved February 18, 2002, from http://metalab.unc.edu/docsouth/leconte/menu.html;
152. Stephens L.D. Joseph LeConte: Gentle Prophet of Evolution (1982), Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge and London
153. Stephens, "LeConte, Joseph," American National Biography Online, retrieved September 1, 2001, from http://www.anb.org/articles/13/13-00966.html. Stephens's book includes a complete bibliography of LeConte's writings (pp. 319-332).
154. LeConte J. Sight: An Exposition of the Principles of Monocular and Binocular Vision (1881), D. Appleton, New York see Stephens, Joseph LeConte, 139-147.
155. Stephens, "LeConte, Joseph"; Phillip C. Cato, "The Evolutionary Theology of Joseph LeConte" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1977).
156. LeConte J. "The Relation of Organic Science to Sociology". Southern Presbyterian Review 13 (1860) 39-77 Subsequent page references in this paragraph are to this article.
157. LeConte J. Religion and Science (1873), D. Appleton, New York
158. LeConte. Evolution and Its Relation to Religious Thought (1888), D. Appleton Co, New York see Cato, "The Evolutionary Theology," and Stephens, Joseph LeConte, for a discussion of LeConte's wider contributions.
159. LeConte, "Evolution in Relation to Materialism," 159.
160. LeConte combined Darwinian and neo-Lamarckian elements in his view of evolution, as did most American scientists at this time. His writings also include some strikingly original evolutionary ideas, including a "law of cyclical evolution," in which geological and organic cycles leave small residues that slowly accumulate, forcing a transition from one steady state to another, and the proposal that evolution is not a continuous process but occurs in "paroxysms" of sudden change alternating with periods of relative stability. The latter idea is similar to the theory of punctuated equilibrium proposed by. Eldredge N., and Gould S.J. "Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism,". In: Schopf T.J.M. (Ed). Models in Paleobiology (1972), Freeman, Cooper, San Francisco 82-115 LeConte, "Evolution in Relation to Materialism," 159. For LeConte's "law of cyclical evolution," see "The Relation of Organic Science to Sociology."
161. LeConte, "Evolution in Relation to Materialism," 164-165.
162. Ibid., 158. This conception may reflect a Hegelian influence on LeConte's thought. LeConte records in his autobiography that he "dipped into" the works of Hegel, among other philosophers;. The Autobiography of Joseph LeConte (1903), D. Appleton, New York 287 See also Stephens, Joseph LeConte., 228-229.
163. Joseph LeConte, "On Some Phenomena of Binocular Vision," American Journal of Science & Arts, 3rd Series, 2 (1871): 417-426, p. 425.
164. Joseph LeConte, "Instinct and Intelligence," Popular Science Monthly, 7 (1875): 653-664, p. 655; see also "Scientific Relation of Sociology to Biology," Popular Science Monthly, 14 (1879): 325-336, 425-434, p. 426.
165. Joseph LeConte, "The Psychical Relation of Man to Animals," Princeton Review, 4th series, 13 (1884): 236-261, p. 237.
166. LeConte, "Instinct and Intelligence," 657. Subsequent page references are to this article.
167. LeConte J. "Man's Place in Nature". Princeton Review, 4th Series 2 (1878) 776-803
168. "Illustrations of a Law of Evolution of Thought". Princeton Review, 4th Series 8 (1881) 373-393
169. "Mutual Relations of Intellectual and Moral Culture". Overland Monthly, 2nd Series 1 (1883) 10-16
170. "The Psychical Relation of Man to Animals". Princeton Review, 4th Series 13 (1884) 236-261 Subsequent page references are to the last of these articles, which was republished with only minor changes as
171. LeConte. "From Animal To Man". The Monist 6 (1896) 356-381
172. Baldwin J.M. "On Selective Thinking". Psychological Review 5 (1898) 1-28
173. Skinner B.F. "Selection By Consequences". Science 213 (1981) 501-504
174. Campbell D.T. "Evolutionary Epistemology,". In: Schlipp P.A. (Ed). The Philosophy of Karl Popper Vol. 1 (1974), Open Court, LaSalle, IL 413-463
175. Joseph LeConte, "The Relation of Philosophy to Psychology and to Physiology," Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 12 (1892, February): 19-38, p. 22.
176. LeConte, "The Psychical Relation," 260.
177. Ibid.; see also LeConte, "Man's Place in Nature."
178. Trautmann, Lewis Henry Morgan, 173.
179. Morgan, The American Beaver, 282.
180. LeRoy C.G. Lettres sur les animaux (1768), Saugrain, Nuremberg, Germany See also
181. LeRoy. The Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals From a Philosophic Point of View, With a Few Letters on Man (1870), Chapman and Hall, London Richards, Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories, 25-30.
182. Cheryl A. Logan, "The Altered Rationale for the Choice of a Standard Animal in Experimental Psychology:. Donaldson H.H., and Meyer A. 'the' Albino Rat". History of Psychology 2 (1999) 3-24
183. Three articles on comparative psychology published around the turn of the century make no reference to Morgan, Bascom, or LeConte:. Sully J. "Is Man the Only Reasoner?". Popular Science Monthly 40 (1892) 506-517
184. Jastrow J. "The Problems of Comparative Psychology". Popular Science Monthly 42 (1892) 35-48 Mills, "Some Aspects" (see note 1). John Dewey cited Bascom, along with Darwin and Spencer, in the discussion of instinct in his textbook, but provided no discussion of his ideas; Dewey, Psychology, 3rd rev. ed. (1891), in John Dewey: The Early Works, 1882-1898, vol. 2 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967), 308.
185. Leary, "Telling Likely Stories," 317-318 (see note 8).
186. Bascom, "Instinct," 680-681.
187. An exception might have been Alexander Bain's journal Mind, founded in 1876. Mind, was a British journal, as were most of it contributors in its early years. However, the first article in the first issue (Herbert Spencer, "Comparative Psychology of Man," Mind, 1 [1876]: 7-20) would surely have appealed to all three of these writers.
188. On the insitutionalization of American psychology, see Hilgard, Psychology in America, chap. 10;. Camfield T.M. "The Professionalism of American Psychology, 1870-1917". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 9 (1973) 66-75