Introduction to confocal microscopy

Methods in Cell Biology

Volumn 2002, Issue 70, 2002, Pages 1-85

  Wright, Shirley J ^a   Wright, David J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIAGNOSTIC AGENT; FLUORESCENT DYE;

ANIMAL; CONFOCAL MICROSCOPY; CYTOLOGY; EUKARYOTIC CELL; HUMAN; IMAGE PROCESSING; INSTRUMENTATION; MICROTOMY; OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION; REVIEW; TISSUE FIXATION;

ANIMALS; EUKARYOTIC CELLS; FLUORESCENT DYES; HUMANS; IMAGE PROCESSING, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; LENSES; MICROSCOPY, CONFOCAL; MICROTOMY; TISSUE FIXATION;

EID: 0037795701     PISSN: 0091679X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/s0091-679x(02)70002-2     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Agard, D. A., and Sedat, J. W. (1983). Three-dimensional architecture of a polytene nucleus. Nature (London) 302, 676-681.
2. Agard, D. A., Hiraoka, Y., Shaw, P. J., and Sedat, J. W. (1989). Fluorescence microscopy in three dimensions. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (D. L. Taylor and Y.-L. Wang, eds.), Vol. 30, pp. 353-378. Academic Press, San Diego.
3. Amos, W. B., White, J. G., and Fordham, M. (1987). Use of confocal imaging in the study of biological structures. Appl. Opt. 26, 3239-3243.
4. Art, J. J., and Goodman, M. B. (1993). Rapid scanning confocal microscopy. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 47-77. Academic Press, San Diego.
5. Berrios, M., Conlon, K. A., and Colflesh, D. E. (1999). Antifading agents for confocal fluorescence microscopy. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 55-79. Academic Press, San Diego.
6. Bkaily, G., Jacques, D., and Pothier, P. (1999). Use of confocal microscopy to investigate cell structure and function. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 119-135. Academic Press, San Diego.
7. Blatter, L. A. (1999). Cell volume measurements by fluorescence confocal microscopy: Theoretical and practical aspects. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 274-295. Academic Press, San Diego.
8. Bowtell, D. D. L. (1999). Options available-from start to finish-for obtaining expression data by microarray. Nat. Genet. Suppl. 21, 25-32.
9. Boyde, A. (1985). Stereoscopic images in confocal (tandem scanning) microscopy. Science 230, 1270-1272.
10. Boyde, A. (1990). Real-time direct-view confocal light microscopy. In "Electronic Light Microscopy: Techniques in Modern Biomedical Microscopy" (D. M. Shotton, ed.), pp. 289-314. Wiley-Liss, New York.
11. Boyde, A., Jones, S. J., Taylor, M. L., Wolfe, A., and Watson, T. F. (1990). Fluorescence in the tandem scanning microscope. J. Microsc. (Oxford) 157, 39-49.
12. Brakenhoff, G. J. (1979). Imaging modes in confocal scanning light microscopy (CSLM). J. Microsc. (Oxford) 117, 233-242.
13. Brelje, T. C., Wessendorf, M. W., and Sorenson, R. L. (1993). Multicolor laser scanning confocal immunofluorescence microscopy: Practical application and limitations. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 97-181. Academic Press, San Diego.
14. Brotchie, D., Roberts, N., Birch, M., Hogg, P., Howard, C. V., and Grierson, I. (1999). Characterization of ocular cellular and extracellular structures using confocal microscopy and computerized three-dimensional reconstruction. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 496-513. Academic Press, San Diego.
15. Calloway, C. B. (1999). A confocal microscope with spectrophotometric detection. Microsc. Microanal. 5 (suppl. 2: Proceedings), 460-461.
16. Carlsson, K., Danielsson, P. E., Lenz, R., Liljeborg, A., Majlöf, L., and Aslund, N. (1985). Three-dimensional microscopy using a confocal scanning laser microscope. Optics Lett. 10, 53-55.
17. Chen, H., Swedlow, J., Grote, M., Sedat, J. W., and Agard, D. A. (1995). The collection, processing and display of digital three-dimensional images of biological specimens. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 197-210. Plenum Press, New York.
18. Cheng, P. C., and Kriete, A. (1995). Image contrast in confocal light microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy." (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 281-310. Plenum Press, New York.
19. Cheung, V. G., Morley, M., Aguilar, F., Massimi, A., Kucherlapati, R., and Childs, G. (1999). Making and reading microarrays. Nat. Genet. Suppl. 21, 15-19.
20. Cogswell, C. J., and Sheppard, C. J. R. (1990). Confocal brightfield imaging techniques using an on-axis scanning optical microscope. In "Confocal Microscopy" (T. Wilson, ed.), pp. 213-243. Academic Press, London.
21. Cox, G. (1999). Equipment for mass storage and processing of data. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 29-55. Academic Press, San Diego.
22. Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. (1971). Scanning laser microscope for biological investigations. Appl. Optics 10, 1615-1619.
23. Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. (1972). Scanning Optical Microscope. U.S. Patent No. 3,643,015
24. Davidovits, P., and Egger, M. D. (1973). Photomicrography of corneal endothelial cells in vivo. Nature 244, 366-367.
25. Denk, W., Strickler, J. H., and Webb, W. W. (1990). Two-photon laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy. Science 248, 73-76.
26. Denk, W., Piston, D. W., and Webb, W. W. (1995). Two-photon molecular excitation in laser-scanning microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 445-458. Plenum Press, New York.
27. DeRisi, J., Penland, L., Brown, P. O., Bittner, M. L., Meltzer, P. S., Ray, M., Chen, Y., Su, Y. A., and Trent, J. M. (1996). Use of a cDNA microarray to analyze gene expression patterns in human cancer. Nat. Genet. 14, 457-460.
28. Draaijer, A., and Houpt, P. M. (1988). A standard video-rate confocal laser-scanning reflection and fluorescence microscope. Scanning 10, 139-145.
29. Draaijer, A., and Houpt, P. M. (1993). High scan-rate confocal laser scanning microscopy. In "Electronic Light Microscopy: Techniques in Modern Biomedical Microscopy" (D. M. Shotton, ed.), pp. 273-288. Wiley-Liss, New York.
30. Dunn, K. W., and Wang, E. (2000). Optical aberrations and objective choice in multicolor confocal microscopy. BioTechniques 28, 542-550.
31. Egger, M. D. (1989). The development of confocal microscopy. Trends Biochem. Sci. 12, 11.
32. Egger, M. D., and Petráň, M. (1967). New reflected light microscope for viewing unstained brain and ganglion cells. Science 157, 305-307.
33. Fan, G. Y., Fujisaki, H., Miyawaki, A., Tsay, R. K., Tsien, R. Y., and Ellisman, M. H. (1999). Video-rate scanning two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy and ratio imaging with cameleons. Biophysic. J. 76, 2412-2420.
34. 2+ diffusion from cytosol to nucleus in contracting adult rat cardiac myocytes with an ultra-fast confocal imaging system. Cell Calcium 25, 199-208.
35. Giloh, H., and Sedat, J. W. (1982). Fluorescence microscopy: Reduced photobleaching of rhodamine and fluorescein protein conjugates by n-propyl gallate. Science 217, 1252-1255.
36. Golub, T. R., Slonim, D. K., Tamayo, P., Huard, C., Gaasenbeek, M., Mesirov, J. P., Coller, J., Loh, M. L., Downing, J. R., Caligiuri, M. A., Bloomfield, C. D., and Lander, E. S. (1999). Molecular classification of cancer: Class discovery and prediction by gene expression monitoring. Science 286, 531-537.
37. Gratton, E., and vandeVen, M. J. (1995). Laser sources for confocal microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 69-109. Plenum Press, New York.
38. Hale, I. L., and Matsumoto, B. (1993). Resolution of subcellular detail in thick tissue sections: Immunohistochemical preparation and fluorescence confocal microscopy. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 289-324. Academic Press, San Diego.
39. Hama, T., Takahashi, A., Ichihara, A., and Takamatsu, T. (1998). Real time in situ confocal imaging of calcium wave in the perfused whole heart of the rat. Cell. Signal. 10, 331-337.
40. Harris, K. M., and Stevens, J. K. (1989). Dendritic spines of CA 1 pyramidal cells in the rat hippocampus: Serial electron microscopy with reference to their biophysical characteristics. J. Neurosci. 9, 2982-2997.
41. Haugland, R. P. (1990). Fluorescein substitutes for microscopy and imaging. In "Optical Microscopy for Biology" (B. Herman and K. Jacobson, eds.), pp. 143-157. Alan R. Liss, New York.
42. Haugland, R. P. (1999). "Handbook of Fluorescent Probes and Research Chemicals," 7th ed. Molecular Probes, Inc., Eugene, OR.
43. Hogan, H. (2000). Miniature microscope clears things up. Biophotonics Int. April/May, 20.
44. Holmes, T. J., Bhattacharya, S., Cooper, J. A., Hanzel, D., Krishnamurthi, V., Lin, W-C, Roysam, B., Szarowski, D. H., and Turner, J. N. (1995). Light microscopic images reconstructed by maximum likelihood deconvolution. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 389-402. Plenum Press, New York.
45. Hoyt, C. (1996). Liquid crystal filters clear the way for imaging multiprobe fluorescence. Biophotonics Int. July/Aug, 49-51.
46. Ichihara, A., Tanaami, T., Isozaki, K., Sugiyama, Y., Kosugi, Y., Mikuriya, K., Abe, M., and Uemura, I. (1996). High-speed confocal fluorescence microscopy using a Nipkow scanner with microlenses for 3-D imaging of single fluorescent molecule in real-time. Bioimages 4, 57-62.
47. Inoué, S. (1995). Foundations of confocal scanned imaging in light microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 1-17.
48. Inoué, S., and Spring, K. R. (1997). "Video Microscopy, the Fundamentals," 2nd ed. Plenum Press, New York.
49. Jester, J. V., Petroll, W. M., and Cavanagh, H. D. (1999). Measurement of tissue thickness using confocal microscopy. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 230-245. Academic Press, San Diego.
50. Johnson, G. D., and de C Nogueira Arajo, G. M. (1981). A simple method of reducing the fading of immunofluorescence during microscopy. J. Immunol. Methods 43, 349-350.
51. Johnson, G. D., Davidson, R. S., McNamee, K. C., Russel, G., Goodwin, D., and Holbrow, E. J. (1982). Fading of immunofluorescence during microscopy: A study of the phenomenon and its remedy. J. Immunol. Methods 55, 231-242.
52. Kawasaki, E., Schermer, M., and Zeleny, R. (1999). Confocal laser scanners for gene analysis. Biophotonics Int. March/April, 47-49.
53. Keller, H. E. (1995). Objective lenses for confocal microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 111-126. Plenum Press, New York.
54. Kino, G. S. (1989). Efficiency in Nipkow disk microscopes. In "The Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. Pawley, ed.), pp. 93-97. IMR Press, Madison, WI.
55. Kino, G. S. (1995). Intermediate optics in Nipkow disk microscopes. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 155-165. Plenum Press, New York.
56. Kino, G. S., and Xiao, G. Q. (1990). Real-time scanning optical microscopes. In "Confocal Microscopy" (T. Wilson, ed.), pp. 361-387. Academic Press, London.
57. Kong, S. K., Ko, S., Lee, C. Y., and Lui, P. Y. (1999). Practical considerations in acquiring biological signals from confocal microscope. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 20-26. Academic Press, San Diego.
58. Kubitscheck, U., Tschödrich-Rotter, M., Wedekind, P., and Peters, R. (1996). Two-photon scanning microphotolysis for three-dimensional data storage and biological transport measurements. J. Microsc., 182, 225-233.
59. Langanger, G., De Mey, J., and Adam, H. (1983). 1,4-Diazobicycle-(2,2,2)- octane (DABCO) retards the fading of immunofluorescence preparations. Mikroskopie 40, 237-241.
60. Lichtman, J. W., Sunderland, W. J., and Wilkinson, R. S. (1989). High-resolution imaging of synaptic structure with a simple confocal microscope. New Biol. 1, 75-82.
61. Longin, A., Souchier, C., French, M., and Byron, P. A. (1993). Comparison of anti-fading agents used in fluorescence microscopy: Image analysis and laser confocal microscopy study. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 41, 1833-1840.
62. Lui, P. P., Lee, M. M., Ko, S., Lee, C. Y., and Kong, S. K. (1997). Practical considerations in acquiring biological signals from confocal microscope. II. Laser-induced rise of fluorescence and effect of agonist droplet application. Biol. Signals 6, 45-51.
63. Majlof, L., and Forsgren, P.-O. (1993). Confocal microscopy: Important considerations for accurate imaging. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 79-95. Academic Press, San Diego.
64. Masters, B. R., So, P. T. C., Kim, K. H., Buehler, C., and Gratton, E. (1999). Multiphoton excitation microscopy, confocal microscopy, and spectroscopy of living cells and tissues; functional metabolic imaging of human skin in vivo. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 513-536. Academic Press, San Diego.
65. McCarthy, D. C. (1999). A start on parts for multiphoton microscopy. Photonics Spectra November, 80-88.
66. Minsky, M. (1957). Microscopy Apparatus. U.S. Patent No. 3,013,467
67. Minsky, M. (1988). Memoir on inventing the confocal scanning microscope. Scanning 10, 128-138.
68. Mohler, W. A., and White, J. G. (1998). Stereo-3-D reconstruction and animation from living fluorescent specimens. BioTechniques 24, 1006-1012.
69. Mohler, W. A., Simske, J. S., Williams-Masson, E. M., Hardin, J. D., and White, J. G. (1998). Dynamics and ultrastructure of developmental cell fusions in Caenorhabditis elegans hypodermis. Curr. Biol. 8, 1087-1090.
70. Newman, E. A., and Zahs, K. R. (1997). Calcium waves in retinal glial cells. Science 275, 844-849.
71. Ohta, H., Yamamoto, M., Ujike, Y., Rie, G., and Momose, K. (1999). Confocal imaging analysis of intracellular ions in mixed cellular systems or in situ using two types of confocal microscopic systems. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 425-441. Academic Press, San Diego.
72. Paddock, S. W. (1989). Tandem scanning reflected-light microscopy of cell-substratum adhesions and stress fibers in Swiss 3T3 cells. J. Cell Sci. 93, 143-146.
73. Paddock, S., DeVries, P., Holy, J., and Schatten, G. (1990). On laser scanning confocal microscopy and three dimensional volume rendering of biological structures. Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 1205, 20-28.
74. Petráň, M., Hadravský, M., Egger, D., and Galambos, R. (1968). Tandem-scanning reflected-light microscope. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 58, 661-664.
75. Petráň, M., Hadravský, M., Benes, J., Kucera, R., and Boyde, A. (1985). The tandem scanning reflected light microscope (TSRLM). Proc. R. Microsc. Soc. 20, 125-139.
76. Petráň, M., Boyde, A., and Hadravský, M. (1990). Direct view confocal microscopy. In "Confocal Microscopy" (T. Wilson, ed.), pp. 245-283. Academic Press, London.
77. Piston, D. W. (1999). Imaging living cells and tissues by two-photon excitation microscopy. Trends Cell Biol. 9, 66-69.
78. Potter, S. M. (1996). Vital imaging: Two photons are better than one. Curr. Biol. 6, 1595-1598.
79. Schilling, G. (1999a). Giant eyes on the sky. Astronomy December, 49-51.
80. Schilling, G. (1999b). Techniques for unblurring the stars come of age. Science 286, 1504-1506.
81. Schmid, A., Chiba, A., and Doe, C. Q. (1999). Clonal analysis of Drosophila embryonic neuroblasts: neural cell types, axon projections and muscle targets. Development 126, 4653-4689.
82. Shaw, P. J. (1995). Comparison of wide-field/deconvolution and confocal microscopy for 3D imaging. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 373-387. Plenum Press, New York.
83. Sheppard, C. J. R., and Choudhury, A. (1977). Image formation in the scanning microscope. Opt. Acta 24, 1051-1073.
84. Sheppard, C. J. R., and Shotton, D. M. (1997). "Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy." Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford, UK.
85. Shotton, D. M. (1989). Confocal scanning optical microscopy and its applications for biological specimens. J. Cell Sci. 94, 175-206.
86. Shuman, H., Murray, J. M., and DiLullo, C. (1989). Confocal microscopy: An overview. BioTechniques 7, 154-163.
87. Snyman, C. J., Raidoo, D. M., and Bhoola, K. D. (1999). Localization of proteases and peptide receptors by confocal microscopy. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 368-394. Academic Press, San Diego.
88. Squirrell, J. M., Wokosin, D. L., White, J. G., and Bavister, B. D. (1999). Long-term two-photon fluorescence imaging of mammalian embryos without compromising viability. Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 763-767.
89. Straub, M., and Hell, S. W. (1998). Multifocal multiphoton microscopy: A fast and efficient tool for 3-D fluorescence imaging. Bioimaging 6, 177-185.
90. Stricker, S. A., Centonze, V. E., Paddock, S. W., and Schatten, G. (1992). Confocal microscopy of fertilization-induced calcium dynamics in sea urchin eggs. Dev. Biol. 149, 370-380.
91. Summers, R. G., Stricker, S. A., and Cameron, R. A. (1993). Applications of confocal microscopy to studies of sea urchin embryogenesis. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 265-287. Academic Press, San Diego.
92. Tsien, R. Y., and Bacskai, B. J. (1995). Video-rate confocal microscopy. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 449-478. Plenum Press, New York.
93. Van Zandt, W., and Argiro, V. (1989). A new "inlook" on life. Unix Rev. 7, 52-57.
94. Wang, Y.-L. (1998). Digital deconvolution and fluorescence images for biologists. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (G. Sluder and D. E. Wolf, eds.), Vol. 56, pp. 305-315. Academic Press, San Diego.
95. Webb, R. H., and Dorey, C. K. (1995). The pixilated image. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 55-67. Plenum Press, New York.
96. Wei, X., Somanathan, S., Samarabandu, J., and Berezney, R. (1999). Three-dimensional visualization of transcription sites and their association with splicing factor-rich nuclear speckles. J. Cell Biol. 146, 543-558.
97. White, J. G., Amos, W. B., and Fordham, M. (1987). An evaluation of confocal versus conventional imaging of biological structures by fluorescence light microscopy. J. Cell Biol. 105, 41-48.
98. White, N. S. (1995). Visualization systems for multidimensional CLSM images. In "Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy" (J. B. Pawley, ed.), 2nd ed., pp. 211-254. Plenum Press, New York.
99. Wijnaendts van Resandt, R. W., Marsman, H. J. B., Kaplan, R., Davoust, J., Stelzer, E. H. K., and Stricker, R. (1985). Optical fluorescence microscopy in 3 dimensions: Microtomoscopy. J. Microsc. (Oxford) 138, 29-34.
100. Wilke, V. (1985). Optical scanning microscopy-the laser scan microscope. Scanning 7, 88-96.
101. 2+ imaging of organelles, cells, tissues, and organs. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 441-469. Academic Press, San Diego.
102. Wilson, T., and Sheppard, C. J. R. (1984). "Theory and Practice of Scanning Optical Microscopy." Academic Press, New York.
103. Wright, S. J., and Schatten, G. (1991). Confocal fluorescence microscopy and three-dimensional reconstruction. J. Electron Microsc. Tech. 18, 2-10.
104. Wright, S. J., Walker, J. S., Schatten, H., Simerly, C., McCarthy, J. J., and Schatten, G. (1989). Confocal fluorescence microscopy with the tandem scanning light microscope. J. Cell Sci. 94, 617-624.
105. Wright, S. J., Schatten, H., Simerly, C., and Schatten, G. (1990). Three-dimensional fluorescence imaging with the tandem scanning confocal microscope. In "Optical Microscopy for Biology" (B. Herman and K. Jacobson, eds.), pp. 29-43. Alan R. Liss, New York.
106. Wright, S. J., Centonze, V. E., Stricker, S. A., DeVries, P. J., Paddock, S. W., and Schatten, G. (1993). Introduction to confocal microscopy and three-dimensional reconstruction. In "Methods in Cell Biology" (B. Matsumoto, ed.), Vol. 38, pp. 1-45. Academic Press, San Diego.
107. Xiao, G. Q., and Kino, G. S. (1987). A real-time confocal scanning optical microscope. Proc. Soc. Photo-Opt. Instrum. Eng. 809, 107-113.
108. Xiao, G. Q., Corle, T. T., and Kino, G. S. (1988). Real-time confocal scanning optical microscope. Appl. Phys. Lett. 53, 716-718.
109. Xu, C., Zipfel, W., Shear, J. B., Williams, R. M., and Webb, W. W. (1996). Multiphoton fluorescence excitation: New spectral windows for biological nonlinear microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 10763-10768.
110. Yamaguchi, K. (1999). Observation of microcirculatory kinetics by real-time confocal laser scanning microscopy. In "Methods in Enzymology" (P. M. Conn, ed.), Vol. 307, pp. 394-422. Academic Press, San Diego.
111. Yamaguchi, K., Nishio, K., Sato, N., Tsumura, H., Ichihara, A., Kudo, H., Aoki, T., Naoki, K., Suzuki, K., Miyata, A., Suzuki, Y., and Morooka, S. (1997). Leukocyte kinetics in the pulmonary microcirculation: Observations using real-time confocal luminescence microscopy coupled with high-speed video analysis. Lab. Invest. 76, 809-822.
112. Zalensky, A. O., Allen, M. J., Kobayashi, A., Zalenskaya, A., Balhorn, R., and Bradbury, E. M. (1995). Well-defined genome architecture in the human sperm nucleus. Chromosoma 103, 577-590.