Children in one-parent families: Survival as an indicator of the role of the parents

Journal of Family History

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 269-290

  Van Poppel, Frans ^a  

^a NETHERLANDS INTERDISCIPLINARY DEMOGRAPHIC INSTITUTE   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0037603995     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900002500301     Document Type: Article

References (99)

1. H. Cunningham, Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500 (London/New York: Longman, 1995), 79-106.
2. P. West, "Mechanisms by Which Family Life Affects Health and Lifestyles of Children and How They May be Related to Health Inequalities in Adulthood" (paper presented at the Conference on Family and Health, organized by the Swedish Council for Planning and Coordination of Research, Örebro, Sweden, March 19-20, 1999).
3. Examples are F. W. Bozett and S. M. Hanson, eds., Fatherhood and Families in Cultural Context (New York: Springer, 1991); M. E. Lamb, ed., Parenting and Child Development in "Nontraditional" Families (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999); M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1997); D. Popenoe, Life without Father: Compelling New Evidence that Fatherhood and Marriage Are Indispensable for the Good of Children and Society (New York: Free Press, 1996); M. van Dongen, G. Frinking, and M. Jacobs, eds., Changing Fatherhood: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Thesis, 1995).
4. Examples are F. W. Bozett and S. M. Hanson, eds., Fatherhood and Families in Cultural Context (New York: Springer, 1991); M. E. Lamb, ed., Parenting and Child Development in "Nontraditional" Families (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999); M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1997); D. Popenoe, Life without Father: Compelling New Evidence that Fatherhood and Marriage Are Indispensable for the Good of Children and Society (New York: Free Press, 1996); M. van Dongen, G. Frinking, and M. Jacobs, eds., Changing Fatherhood: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Thesis, 1995).
5. Examples are F. W. Bozett and S. M. Hanson, eds., Fatherhood and Families in Cultural Context (New York: Springer, 1991); M. E. Lamb, ed., Parenting and Child Development in "Nontraditional" Families (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999); M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1997); D. Popenoe, Life without Father: Compelling New Evidence that Fatherhood and Marriage Are Indispensable for the Good of Children and Society (New York: Free Press, 1996); M. van Dongen, G. Frinking, and M. Jacobs, eds., Changing Fatherhood: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Thesis, 1995).
6. Examples are F. W. Bozett and S. M. Hanson, eds., Fatherhood and Families in Cultural Context (New York: Springer, 1991); M. E. Lamb, ed., Parenting and Child Development in "Nontraditional" Families (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999); M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1997); D. Popenoe, Life without Father: Compelling New Evidence that Fatherhood and Marriage Are Indispensable for the Good of Children and Society (New York: Free Press, 1996); M. van Dongen, G. Frinking, and M. Jacobs, eds., Changing Fatherhood: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Thesis, 1995).
7. Examples are F. W. Bozett and S. M. Hanson, eds., Fatherhood and Families in Cultural Context (New York: Springer, 1991); M. E. Lamb, ed., Parenting and Child Development in "Nontraditional" Families (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999); M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley, 1997); D. Popenoe, Life without Father: Compelling New Evidence that Fatherhood and Marriage Are Indispensable for the Good of Children and Society (New York: Free Press, 1996); M. van Dongen, G. Frinking, and M. Jacobs, eds., Changing Fatherhood: A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Thesis, 1995).
8. To cite only a few, J. Demos, Past, Present, and Personal: The Family and the Life Course in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); P. N. Stearns, "Fatherhood in Historical Perspective: The Role of Social Change," in Bozet and Hansen, Fatherhood and Families, 28-52; R. L. Griswold, Fatherhood in America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1993); R. L. Griswold, "Introduction to the Special Issue on Fatherhood," Journal of Family History 24 (1999): 251-54.
9. To cite only a few, J. Demos, Past, Present, and Personal: The Family and the Life Course in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); P. N. Stearns, "Fatherhood in Historical Perspective: The Role of Social Change," in Bozet and Hansen, Fatherhood and Families, 28-52; R. L. Griswold, Fatherhood in America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1993); R. L. Griswold, "Introduction to the Special Issue on Fatherhood," Journal of Family History 24 (1999): 251-54.
10. To cite only a few, J. Demos, Past, Present, and Personal: The Family and the Life Course in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); P. N. Stearns, "Fatherhood in Historical Perspective: The Role of Social Change," in Bozet and Hansen, Fatherhood and Families, 28-52; R. L. Griswold, Fatherhood in America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1993); R. L. Griswold, "Introduction to the Special Issue on Fatherhood," Journal of Family History 24 (1999): 251-54.
11. To cite only a few, J. Demos, Past, Present, and Personal: The Family and the Life Course in American History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); P. N. Stearns, "Fatherhood in Historical Perspective: The Role of Social Change," in Bozet and Hansen, Fatherhood and Families, 28-52; R. L. Griswold, Fatherhood in America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1993); R. L. Griswold, "Introduction to the Special Issue on Fatherhood," Journal of Family History 24 (1999): 251-54.
12. A. Sen, Mortality as an Indicator of Economic Success and Failure: Inaugural Lecture 1995 (Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre, 1995) (Reprinted in The Economic Journal 108 [1998]: 1-25).
13. A. Sen, Mortality as an Indicator of Economic Success and Failure: Inaugural Lecture 1995 (Florence: UNICEF International Child Development Centre, 1995) (Reprinted in The Economic Journal 108 [1998]: 1-25).
14. S. R. Johansson, "The Health Transition: The Cultural Inflation of Morbidity during the Decline of Mortality," Health Transition Review 1 (1991): 39-68.
15. See, especially, E. Shorter, "Illegitimacy, Sexual Revolution and Social Change in Modern Europe," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2 (1971): 237-72; E. Shorter, "Sexual Change and Illegitimacy: The European Experience," in Modern European Social History, ed. R. Bezucha (Lexington/Toronto: D. C. Heath, 1972), 231-69; and J. M. Phayer, Sexual Liberation and Religion in Nineteenth Century Europe (London: Croom Helm, 1977).
16. See, especially, E. Shorter, "Illegitimacy, Sexual Revolution and Social Change in Modern Europe," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2 (1971): 237-72; E. Shorter, "Sexual Change and Illegitimacy: The European Experience," in Modern European Social History, ed. R. Bezucha (Lexington/Toronto: D. C. Heath, 1972), 231-69; and J. M. Phayer, Sexual Liberation and Religion in Nineteenth Century Europe (London: Croom Helm, 1977).
17. See, especially, E. Shorter, "Illegitimacy, Sexual Revolution and Social Change in Modern Europe," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2 (1971): 237-72; E. Shorter, "Sexual Change and Illegitimacy: The European Experience," in Modern European Social History, ed. R. Bezucha (Lexington/Toronto: D. C. Heath, 1972), 231-69; and J. M. Phayer, Sexual Liberation and Religion in Nineteenth Century Europe (London: Croom Helm, 1977).
18. Y. Blayo, "Illegitimate Births in France from 1740 to 1829 and in the 1960s," in Bastardy and Its Comparative History: Studies in the History of Illegitimacy and Marital Nonconformism in Britain, France, Germany, Sweden, North America, Jamaica and Japan, eds. P. Laslett, K. Oosterveen, and R. M. Smith (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), 278-83; M. R. Matovic, "Illegitimacy and Marriage in Stockholm in the Nineteenth Century," in Laslett, Bastardy, 336-45; P. Horská, "Fécondité illégitime et marché matrimoniale dans les pays tschèques du dix-septième au vingtième siècle," in Marriage and Remarriage in Populations of the Past, eds. J. Dupâquier et al. (London: Academic Press, 1981), 453-59.
19. Y. Blayo, "Illegitimate Births in France from 1740 to 1829 and in the 1960s," in Bastardy and Its Comparative History: Studies in the History of Illegitimacy and Marital Nonconformism in Britain, France, Germany, Sweden, North America, Jamaica and Japan, eds. P. Laslett, K. Oosterveen, and R. M. Smith (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), 278-83; M. R. Matovic, "Illegitimacy and Marriage in Stockholm in the Nineteenth Century," in Laslett, Bastardy, 336-45; P. Horská, "Fécondité illégitime et marché matrimoniale dans les pays tschèques du dix-septième au vingtième siècle," in Marriage and Remarriage in Populations of the Past, eds. J. Dupâquier et al. (London: Academic Press, 1981), 453-59.
20. Y. Blayo, "Illegitimate Births in France from 1740 to 1829 and in the 1960s," in Bastardy and Its Comparative History: Studies in the History of Illegitimacy and Marital Nonconformism in Britain, France, Germany, Sweden, North America, Jamaica and Japan, eds. P. Laslett, K. Oosterveen, and R. M. Smith (London: Edward Arnold, 1980), 278-83; M. R. Matovic, "Illegitimacy and Marriage in Stockholm in the Nineteenth Century," in Laslett, Bastardy, 336-45; P. Horská, "Fécondité illégitime et marché matrimoniale dans les pays tschèques du dix-septième au vingtième siècle," in Marriage and Remarriage in Populations of the Past, eds. J. Dupâquier et al. (London: Academic Press, 1981), 453-59.
21. W. Post, F. van Poppel, E. van Imhoff, and E. Kruse, "Reconstructing the Extended Kin-Network in the Netherlands with Genealogical Data: Problems, Methods and Results," Population Studies 51 (1997): 263-78.
22. R. Derosas, "Fatherless Families in Venice 1859-1869" (paper presented at the workshop "When Dad Died: Family Stress and Household Dynamics in Historical Societies," European Social Science Foundation Network on Household and Community Dynamics: An Eurasian Approach to Mobility in Past Societies, May 23-24, 1998, Venice, Italy).
23. R. Phillips, Putting Asunder: A History of Divorce in Western Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
24. R. Phillips, Family Breakdown in Late Eighteenth-Century France: Divorces in Rouen 1792-1803 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1980), 120-24.
25. S. Horrell and J. Humphries, "The Origins and Expansion of the Male Breadwinner Family: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Britain," International Review of Social History 42 (1997): 25-64.
26. M. S. Stroebe and W. Stroebe, "The Mortality of Bereavement: A Review," in Handbook of Bereavement: Theory, Research, and Intervention, eds. M. S. Stroebe, W. Stroebe, and R. O. Hansson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 175-95.
27. P. Martikainen and T. Valkonen, "Mortality after the Death of a Spouse: Rates and Causes of Death in a Large Finnish Cohort," American Journal of Public Health 86 (1996): 1087-93.
28. G. W. Brown, T. O. Harris, and A. Bifulco, "Long-Term Effects of Early Loss of Parents," in Depression in Young People: Developmental and Clinical Perspectives, eds. Michael Rutter, Carroll E. Izard, and Peter B. Read (New York: Guilford, 1986), 251-96.
29. P. Nystedt, Economic Aspects of Ageing (Lund, Sweden: Lund Economic Studies Number 80, 1998).
30. I. Blom, "The History of Widowhood: A Bibliographic Overview," Journal of Family History 16(1991): 191-210; O. Hufton, "Women without Men: Widows and Spinsters in Britain and France in the Eighteenth Century," Journal of Family History 9 (1984): 355-76.
31. I. Blom, "The History of Widowhood: A Bibliographic Overview," Journal of Family History 16(1991): 191-210; O. Hufton, "Women without Men: Widows and Spinsters in Britain and France in the Eighteenth Century," Journal of Family History 9 (1984): 355-76.
32. S. Horrell, J. Humphries, and H.-J. Voth, "Stature and Relative Deprivation: Fatherless Children in Early Industrial Britain," Continuity and Change 13 (1998): 73-116.
33. R. M. Woodbury, Infant Mortality and Its Causes (Baltimore: Williams and Williams, 1926). See also A. Rochester, Infant Mortality: Results of a Field Study in Baltimore, MD, Based on Births in One Year (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, 1926).
34. R. M. Woodbury, Infant Mortality and Its Causes (Baltimore: Williams and Williams, 1926). See also A. Rochester, Infant Mortality: Results of a Field Study in Baltimore, MD, Based on Births in One Year (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, 1926).
35. U. Högberg and G. Bröström, "The Demography of Maternal Mortality: Seven Swedish Parishes in the Nineteenth Century," International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 23 (1985): 489-97.
36. S. Åkerman, U. Högberg, and T. Andersson, "Survival of Orphans in Nineteenth-Century Sweden," in Orphans and Foster-Children: A Historical and Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Lars-Göran Tedebrand (Umeå: Umeå University, 1996), 83-103.
37. P. R. Silverman and J. William Worden, "Children's Reactions to the Death of a Parent," in Stroebe, Stroebe, and Hansson, Handbook of Bereavement, 300-16.
38. M. Buitelaar, "Widow's Worlds. Representations and Realities," in Between Poverty and the Pyre: Moments in the History of Widowhood, eds. J. Bremmer and L. van den Bosch (London: Routledge, 1995), 1-19.
39. S. R. Shuchter and Sidney Zisook, "The Course of Normal Grief," in Stroebe, Stroebe, and Hansson, Handbook of Bereavement, 23-43; G. W. Brown, T. O. Harris, and A. Bifulco, "Long-Term Effects of Early Loss of Parents," in Rutter, Izard, and Read, Depression in Young People, 251-96.
40. S. R. Shuchter and Sidney Zisook, "The Course of Normal Grief," in Stroebe, Stroebe, and Hansson, Handbook of Bereavement, 23-43; G. W. Brown, T. O. Harris, and A. Bifulco, "Long-Term Effects of Early Loss of Parents," in Rutter, Izard, and Read, Depression in Young People, 251-96.
41. M. Bengtsson, Det hotade barnet: Tre generationers spädbarns - och barnadödlighet i 1800-talets Linköping (Linköping: Linköping Studies in Arts and Letters, 1996).
42. Åkerman, Högberg, and Andersson, "Survival of Orphans."
43. J. Schlumbohm, Lebensläufe, Familien, Höfe: Die Bauern und Heuerleute des Osnabrückischen Kirchspiels Belm in proto-industrieller Zeit, 1650-1860 (Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997), 152-65.
44. E. Voland, "Differential Infant and Child Mortality in Evolutionary Perspective: Data from Late 17th to 19th Century Ostfriesland (Germany)," in Reproductive Behaviour: A Darwinian Perspective, eds. L. L. Betzig, M. Borgerhoff Mulder, and P. W. Turke (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 253-61.
45. P. R. Silverman and J. William Worden, "Children's Reactions to the Death of a Parent," in Stroebe, Stroebe, and Hansson, Handbook of Bereavement, 300-16.
46. Over, M., Randall P. Ellis, Joyce H. Huber, and Orville Solon, "The Consequences of Adult Ill-Health," in The Health of Adults in the Developing World, eds. R.G.A. Feachem et al. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 161-208.
47. C. Campbell and J. Z. Lee, "A Death in the Family: Household Structure and Mortality in Rural Liaoning: Life-Event and Time-Series Analysis, 1792-1867," History of the Family 1 (1996): 297-328.
48. S. Klasen, "Marriage, Bargaining, and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation: Excess Female Mortality among Adults during Early German Development, 1740-1860," Journal of Economic History 58 (1998): 432-67.
49. Voland, "Differential Infant and Child Mortality."
50. E. Beekink, F. van Poppel, and A. C. Liefbroer, "Surviving the Loss of the Parent in a Nineteenth-Century Dutch Provincial Town," Journal of Social History 32 (1999): 641-70.
51. Silverman and Worden, "Children's Reactions."
52. Stroebe, Stroebe, and Hansson, Handbook of Bereavement.
53. P. Martikainen and T. Valkonen, "Mortality after Death of Spouse in Relation to Duration of Bereavement in Finland," Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 50 (1996): 264-68.
54. Nystedt, Economic Aspects.
55. Martikainen and Valkonen, "Mortality after Death of Spouse."
56. Examples relating to tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria, and syphilis are given by Over et al., "The Consequences."
57. Schlumbohm, Lebensläufe.
58. E. Beekink, F. van Poppel, and A. C. Liefbroer, "Parental Death and Death of the Child: Common Causes or Direct Effects?" (unpublished manuscript, Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute, The Hague, Netherlands, 1999).
59. J. Kornin, "Child Maltreatment in Cross-Cultural Perspective: Vulnerable Children and Circumstances," in Child Abuse and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions eds. R. J. Gelles and J. B. Lancaster (New York: de Gruyter, 1987), 31-55.
60. C. Bledsoe, "Differential Care of Children of Previous Unions within Mende Households in Sierra Leone," in What We Know about Health Transition: The Cultural, Social and Behavioural Determinants of Health, eds. J. C. Caldwell, S. Findley, P. Caldwell, M. G. Santow, W. H. Cosford, J. Braid, & D. Broers-Freeman (Canberra: Australian National University, 1990), 561-83. Quote that follows is on page 561.
61. Åkerman, Högberg, and Andersson, "Survival of Orphans."
62. Beekink, van Poppel, and Liefbroer, "Surviving the Loss of the Parent."
63. Kornin, "Child Maltreatment"; Silverman and Worden, "hildren's Reactions to the Death."
64. Kornin, "Child Maltreatment"; Silverman and Worden, "hildren's Reactions to the Death."
65. Åkerman, Högberg, and Andersson, "Survival of Orphans."
66. A study of defendants in infanticide cases in Amsterdam in the nineteenth century showed that women born and raised in Amsterdam were more successful in finding helpful relations when pregnant, in creating networks, and literally knowing their way around better. See J. Ermers, "Medea's or Fallen Angels? The Prosecution of Infanticide and Stereotypes of Child Murderesses in the Netherlands in the 19th century," in The Role of the State and Public Opinion in Sexual Attitudes and Demographic Behaviour (Madrid: International Commission on Historical Demography, 1990), 483-92.
67. Derosas, "Fatherless Families."
68. Hufton, "Women without Men"; J. C. Riley, "That Your Widows May be Rich: Providing for Widowhood in Old Regime Europe," Economisch - En Sociaal-Historisch Jaarboek 45 (1982): 58-76.
69. Hufton, "Women without Men"; J. C. Riley, "That Your Widows May be Rich: Providing for Widowhood in Old Regime Europe," Economisch - En Sociaal-Historisch Jaarboek 45 (1982): 58-76.
70. J. Kok, F. van Poppel, and E. Kruse, "Mortality among Illegitimate Children in Mid-Nineteenth-Century The Hague," in The Decline of Infant and Child Mortality: The European Experience: 1750-1990, eds. C. A. Corsini and P. P. Viazzo (The Hague, the Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997), 193-211; Buitelaar, "Widow's Worlds."
71. J. Kok, F. van Poppel, and E. Kruse, "Mortality among Illegitimate Children in Mid-Nineteenth-Century The Hague," in The Decline of Infant and Child Mortality: The European Experience: 1750-1990, eds. C. A. Corsini and P. P. Viazzo (The Hague, the Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997), 193-211; Buitelaar, "Widow's Worlds."
72. J. Kok, Langs verboden wegen: De achtergronden van buitenechtelijke geboorten in Noord-Holland 1812-1914 (Hilversum, the Netherlands: Verloren, 1991).
73. Ermers, "Medea's or Fallen Angels."
74. H. Westergaard, Die Lehre von der Mortalität und Morbilität (Jena, Germany: Verlag G. Fischer, 1901), especially 347-50 and 389-97.
75. See Kok, van Poppel, and Kruse, "Mortality" for Dutch data. For Norway, see J. E. Backer, Dødeligheten og den årsaker i Norge 1856-1955 (Oslo: Sammfunssäkonomiske Studier, Nr. 10, 1961). For Sweden, see A. Brändström, "Life Histories of Single Parents and Illegitimate Infants in Nineteenth-Century Sweden," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 1 (1996): 205-26.
76. See Kok, van Poppel, and Kruse, "Mortality" for Dutch data. For Norway, see J. E. Backer, Dødeligheten og den årsaker i Norge 1856-1955 (Oslo: Sammfunssäkonomiske Studier, Nr. 10, 1961). For Sweden, see A. Brändström, "Life Histories of Single Parents and Illegitimate Infants in Nineteenth-Century Sweden," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 1 (1996): 205-26.
77. See Kok, van Poppel, and Kruse, "Mortality" for Dutch data. For Norway, see J. E. Backer, Dødeligheten og den årsaker i Norge 1856-1955 (Oslo: Sammfunssäkonomiske Studier, Nr. 10, 1961). For Sweden, see A. Brändström, "Life Histories of Single Parents and Illegitimate Infants in Nineteenth-Century Sweden," History of the Family: An International Quarterly 1 (1996): 205-26.
78. Rechtstoestand van onechte hinderen. Vaderschap-Afstamming. Wetsontwerp en memorie van toelichting ('s-Gravenhage: Belinfante, 1898).
79. A. Brändström, "Kinship and Mortality: Illegitimate Children in Sundsvall, Sweden, 1800-1890" (report presented at the twenty-second meeting of the Social Science History Association, Washington, DC, October 16-19, 1997).
80. Kok, van Poppel, and Kruse, "Mortality."
81. A. Blaikie, "Infant Survival Chances, Unmarried Motherhood and Domestic Arrangements in Rural Scotland, 1845-1945," Local Population Studies 60 (1998): 34-46.
82. Brändström, "Life Histories of Single Parents."
83. Brändström, "Kinship and Mortality."
84. A. Sandhop, Eine soziologische Analyse der "rekonstituierten" Familie (Wiesbaden, Germany: Bundesinstitut für Bevölkerungswissenschaft. Materialen zur Bevölkerungswissenschaft, 1981).
85. Beekink, van Poppel, and Liefbroer, "Surviving the Loss"; Åkerman, Högberg, and Andersson, "Survival of Orphans."
86. Beekink, van Poppel, and Liefbroer, "Surviving the Loss"; Åkerman, Högberg, and Andersson, "Survival of Orphans."
87. M. Carvajal and P. Burgess, "Socio-Economic Determinants of Fetal and Child Deaths in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Bogota, Caracas and Rio de Janeiro," Social Science and Medicine 12 (1978): 89-98.
88. S. Desai, "Children at Risk: The Role of Family Structure in Latin America and West Africa," in Proceedings of the Demographic and Health Surveys World Conference, Washington, D.C. 1991, vol. 2 (Columbia, MD: IRD/Macro International, 1991), 999-1020.
89. Bledsoe, "Differential Care."
90. L. J. Waite, "Does Marriage Matter?"Demography 32 (1995): 483-507.
91. Popenoe, Life without Father; Horrell and Humphries, "The Origins and Expansion."
92. Popenoe, Life without Father; Horrell and Humphries, "The Origins and Expansion."
93. J. Kok, E. Kruse, and F. van Poppel, "A Miserable and All Too Often Criminal Existence: The Life Course of Illegitimately Born Children, the Netherlands 19th and 20th Centuries" (paper presented at the 1994 Social Science History Association Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, October 13-16, 1994).
94. Horrell, Humphries, and Voth, "Stature and Relative Deprivation."
95. O. Lundberg, "The Impact of Childhood Living Conditions on Illness and Mortality in Adulthood," Social Science and Medicine 36 (1993): 1047-52.
96. S. H. Preston, M. E. Hill, and G. L. Drevenstedt, "Childhood Conditions that Predict Survival to Advanced Ages among African-Americans," Social Science and Medicine 47 (1998): 1231-46.
97. Vågerö, D., D. Leon, and B. Modin, Life Careers of Children Married to Married and Unmarried Mothers (unpublished manuscript, Stockholm, 1998, cited in D. Vågerö, "Health Inequalities: Searching for Causal Explanations," in Promoting Research on Inequality in Health, Proceedings from an International Expert Meeting in Stockholm, 24-25 September 1997, ed. B. Arve-Parès (Stockholm: Swedish Council for Social Research, 1998), 125-38.
98. Vågerö, D., D. Leon, and B. Modin, Life Careers of Children Married to Married and Unmarried Mothers (unpublished manuscript, Stockholm, 1998, cited in D. Vågerö, "Health Inequalities: Searching for Causal Explanations," in Promoting Research on Inequality in Health, Proceedings from an International Expert Meeting in Stockholm, 24-25 September 1997, ed. B. Arve-Parès (Stockholm: Swedish Council for Social Research, 1998), 125-38.
99. United Nations, Socio-Economic Differentials in Child Mortality in Developing Countries (New York: United Nations, 1985).