The growing strategic importance of end-of-life product management

California Management Review

Volumn 45, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 102-129

  Toffel, Michael W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0037505437     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41166178     Document Type: Review

References (110)

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3. For example, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) required hazardous waste to be controlled from the "cradle-to-grave" (including generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal). U.S. EPA, "Finding Answers: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act," 2002, available at 〈www.epa.gov/region5/defs/html/rcra.htm〉, accessed February 18, 2002. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) (1980) dramatically extended companies' responsibilities by assigning financial responsibility for cleaning up hazardous waste sites to companies that generated hazardous substances disposed of at the site, current and former owners and operators of the site, and transporters who selected the site for disposal of hazardous substances - even when decisions and actions were in full compliance with EPA regulations. U.S. EPA, "Superfund (CERCLA) Cleanup Enforcement," 2000, available at 〈es.epa.gov/oeca/osre/superfund.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002. Seeking to make those who financially benefited from the production, transport, and handling of hazardous waste also bear its full costs, Congress had CERCLA impose strict liability on these parties for the full cleanup costs of hazardous waste sites. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 42 USC 9607(b), 1980. The courts have supported this intent. For example, a Supreme Court decision notes "CERCLA . . . imposes the costs of the cleanup on those responsible for the contamination." Pennsylvania v. Union Gas Co., 491 U.S. 1, 7, 1989.
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7. I b i d.
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10. I b i d.
11. For example, landfill bans are being extended in the United States. Many states have already banned landfill disposal of yard waste, tires, white goods, and whole tires. With regard to electronics, the U.S. EPA has classified cathode ray tubes (CRTs), found in televisions and computer monitors, and mercury-containing equipment as hazardous waste under RCRA. This requires large businesses - but not consumers or small businesses - to dispose of these items as hazardous waste. In 2000, Massachusetts became the first state to ban CRTs from municipal solid waste landfills. California followed suit in 2001. Similar legislation that would seeks to ban CRTs from landfills, or require special treatment prior to disposal, has been introduced in Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania. National Caucus of Environmental Legislators (NCEL), "Electronic Waste Legislation," 2002, available at 〈www.ncel.net/ewastelist.html〉, accessed November 25, 2002.
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13. I b i d.
14. Electronic Industries Alliance, "Addressing End-Of-Life Electronics Through Design: A Compendium of Design-For-Environment Efforts of EIA Members," Arlington, VA, 1998, p. 5.
15. European Environmental Bureau, "Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment," (undated), available at 〈www.eeb.org/activities/waste/weee.htm〉, accessed November 22, 2002.
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17. They both define "recovery" according to Annex II.B to Council Directive 75/442/EEC, as amended by Commission Decision of 24 May 1996 adapting Annexes IIA and IIB to Council Directive 75/442/EEC on Waste. See Official Journal L 135, June 6, 1996, pp. 32-34.
18. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on Packaging and Packaging Waste, Official Journal of the European Communities, No L 365/10, December 31, 1994.
19. Fujii, op. cit.
20. Orgalime, "Orgalime Guidance on Producer Responsibility in the Proposed WEEE Directive: Notes for the conciliation process," Brussels, 2002.
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22. Stein Torsten, "Legal Opinion on the proposal of the Commission of the European Communities for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on waste electrical and electronic equipment," Saarbruecken, 2000; Elena Lymberidi, "Towards Waste-Free Electrical And Electronic Equipment," Brussels, European Environmental Bureau, 2001.
23. CECED, "Initiatives undertaken by EU Member States and Norway and Switzerland to deal with take-back and proper treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): Status report," Brussels, European Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment, 2002.
24. ISR-CER, "Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)," Instituto para la Sostenibilidad de los Recursos-CER (200), available at 〈www.isrcer.org/informcer.htm〉, accessed November 20, 2002; CECED, "Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: The European Domestic Appliance Industry's Questions & Answers Concerning WEEE," European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers 2001, available at 〈www.ceced.org/energy/CECED_FAQ_EOL.doc〉, accessed November 20, 2002.
25. ISR-CER, "Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)," Instituto para la Sostenibilidad de los Recursos-CER (200), available at 〈www.isrcer.org/informcer.htm〉, accessed November 20, 2002; CECED, "Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: The European Domestic Appliance Industry's Questions & Answers Concerning WEEE," European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers 2001, available at 〈www.ceced.org/energy/CECED_FAQ_EOL.doc〉, accessed November 20, 2002.
26. Elena Lymberidi, "Towards Waste-Free Electrical and Electronic Equipment," Brussels, European Environmental Bureau, 2001.
27. CECED, "Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: The European Domestic Appliance Industry's Questions & Answers Concerning WEEE," European Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers, 2001, available at 〈www.ceced.org/energy/CECED_FAQ_EOL.doc〉, accessed November 20, 2002.
28. Orgalime, op. cit.
29. I b i d.
30. The proposed WEEE Directive provides operational flexibility: "Member States shall ensure that producers or third parties acting on behalf of them set up systems either on an individual or collective basis . . ." [italics added] (Article 7:1). Individual financial responsibility for new products is provided: "For products put on the market later than [thirty months after entry into force of this Directive], each producer is responsible for financing the operations . . . related to the waste from his own products. The producer can choose to fulfill this obligation either individually or by joining a collective scheme" [italics added] (Article 8:2). Collective financial responsibility is imposed on existing products: "The responsibility for the financing of the costs of the management of WEEE from products put on the market before [the historic waste period expires] . . . shall be provided by one or more systems to which all producers, existing on the market when the respective costs occur, contribute proportionately, e.g., in proportion to their respective share of the market by type of equipment" (Article 8:3). European Parliament & European Council, "Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), joint text approved by the Conciliation Committee provided for in Article 251 (4) of the EC Treaty, PE-CONS 3663/02EN," November 8, 2002.
31. European Commission, "Commission Welcomes Agreement on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (IP/02/1463)," October 11, 2002.
32. Article 5 notes, "In areas which do not fall within its exclusive competence, the Community shall take action, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity, only if and insofar as the objectives of the proposed action cannot be sufficiently achieved by the Member States and can therefore, by reason of the scale or effects of the proposed action, be better achieved by the Community," The Treaty establishing the European Community (1992) as amended by the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997).
33. The 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states: "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people."
34. Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers, "International Packaging Regulations," available at 〈www.epspackaging.org/ipr.html〉, accessed November 21, 2002.
35. Alliance of Foam Packaging Recyclers, "The Ins and Outs of German Packaging Regulations," available at 〈www.epspackaging.org/agermany.html〉, accessed November 21, 2002.
36. Frances Cairncross, "How Europe's Companies Reposition to Recycle," Harvard Business Review, 70/2 (March/April 1992): 34-45.
37. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on Packaging and Packaging Waste, Official Journal of the European Communities, No L 365/10, December 31, 1994.
38. Umweltbundesamt (Germany's Federal Environmental Agency), "Battery Recycling," 1998, available at 〈www.umweltbundesamt.de/uba-info-daten-e/daten-e/ batterieverwertung.htm〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
39. U.S. EPA, "Product Stewardship," 2001, available at 〈www.epa.gov/epr/about/index.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
40. Bette Fishbein, "EPR: What Does It Mean? Where Is It Headed?" P2: Pollution Prevention Review, 8/4 (1998): 43-55; U.S. EPA, "Product Stewardship," 2001, available at 〈www.epa.gov/epr/about/index.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
41. Bette Fishbein, "EPR: What Does It Mean? Where Is It Headed?" P2: Pollution Prevention Review, 8/4 (1998): 43-55; U.S. EPA, "Product Stewardship," 2001, available at 〈www.epa.gov/epr/about/index.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
42. Fishbein, op. cit. There are many examples outside the environmental arena of industry self-regulation intended to forestall government regulation. In the media industries, such actions have answered calls for U.S. government censorship: the National Association of Broadcasters developed a Code of Conduct, the Motion Picture Association of America developed a list of "Don'ts and Be Carefuls" in the 1920s and a voluntary rating system in the late 1960s. Similarly, the Record Industry Association of America developed the Parental Advisory program in the 1980s to include warning labels on records with explicit lyrics.
43. Frank den Hond, "In Search of a Useful Theory of Environmental Strategy: A Case Study on the Recycling of End-of-Life Vehicles from the Capabilities Perspective," Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1996.
44. Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of September 18, 2000 on end-of life vehicles. See 269 Official Journal L 34, October 21, 2000.
45. International Association of Electronics Recycling, "Electronics Recycling Newsletter," 2001, available at 〈www.iaer.org/communications/NL0401.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
46. Matthew Weinberg, Gregory Eyring, Joe Raguso, and David Jensen, "Industrial Ecology: The Role of Government," in B.R. Allenby and D.J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1994), pp. 123-134.
47. Raymond Communications, "Electronics Recycling: What to Expect from Global Mandates," College Park, MD, 2000. CECED, "Initiatives undertaken by EU Member States and Norway and Switzerland to deal with take-back and proper treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): Status report," Brussels, European Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment, 2002. Catherine K. Lin, Linan Yan, and Andrew N. Davis, "Globalization, Extended Producer Responsibility and the Problem of Discarded Computers in China: An Exploratory Proposal for Environmental Protection," Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 14 (2002): 525-576.
48. Raymond Communications, "Electronics Recycling: What to Expect from Global Mandates," College Park, MD, 2000. CECED, "Initiatives undertaken by EU Member States and Norway and Switzerland to deal with take-back and proper treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): Status report," Brussels, European Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment, 2002. Catherine K. Lin, Linan Yan, and Andrew N. Davis, "Globalization, Extended Producer Responsibility and the Problem of Discarded Computers in China: An Exploratory Proposal for Environmental Protection," Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 14 (2002): 525-576.
49. Raymond Communications, "Electronics Recycling: What to Expect from Global Mandates," College Park, MD, 2000. CECED, "Initiatives undertaken by EU Member States and Norway and Switzerland to deal with take-back and proper treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): Status report," Brussels, European Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment, 2002. Catherine K. Lin, Linan Yan, and Andrew N. Davis, "Globalization, Extended Producer Responsibility and the Problem of Discarded Computers in China: An Exploratory Proposal for Environmental Protection," Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 14 (2002): 525-576.
50. Naoko Tojo, "Analysis of EPR Policies and Legislation through Comparative Study of Selected EPR Programmes for EEE," IIIEE Communications, 10 (2000); U.S. EPA, "Product Stewardship," 2001, available at 〈www.epa.gov/epr/about/index.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
51. Naoko Tojo, "Analysis of EPR Policies and Legislation through Comparative Study of Selected EPR Programmes for EEE," IIIEE Communications, 10 (2000); U.S. EPA, "Product Stewardship," 2001, available at 〈www.epa.gov/epr/about/index.html〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
52. Toshihiko Fujii, Japan Business Council in Europe, "The Development of Japan's Take-back Regulations and Business Impact," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
53. Christopher Kieren Mayers, "Electronics Recycling Implementation: Legislation, Business Implications, and Strategy," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
54. Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration, "Home Appliance Recycling Fee to be Raised," Environmental Policy Monthly, 3/10 (2000); Chiu Yu-Tzu, "Taiwan Wins Praise for Recycling Used Computers," Taipei Times, November 11, 2000.
55. Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration, "Home Appliance Recycling Fee to be Raised," Environmental Policy Monthly, 3/10 (2000); Chiu Yu-Tzu, "Taiwan Wins Praise for Recycling Used Computers," Taipei Times, November 11, 2000.
56. European Commission, "Amended Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment, COM(2001) 315 final," 2001. European Parliament delegation to the Conciliation Committee, "Report on the joint text approved by the Conciliation Committee for a European Parliament and Council Directive on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (PE-CONS 3663/2002 - C5-0486/2002 - 2000/0158(COD))," 2002.
57. Commission of the European Communities, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, COD 2000/0159 with amendments approved by the European Commission COM/2000/0347. 〈www.europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/reg/en_register_15103030.html〉. Also, see European Commission, "Commission Welcomes Agreement on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (IP/02/1463)," October 11, 2002.3
58. Commission of the European Communities, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, COD 2000/0159 with amendments approved by the European Commission COM/2000/0347. 〈www.europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/reg/en_register_15103030.html〉. Also, see European Commission, "Commission Welcomes Agreement on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (IP/02/1463)," October 11, 2002
59. Recommendation for Second Reading on the Council common position for adopting the proposal for a European Parliament and Council Directive on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (11356/1/2001 - C5-0637/2001 - 2000/0159(COD)). European Parliament Session Document, March 22, 2002, FINAL A5-0097/2002.
60. This point was brought to the author's attention by the participants of the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
61. Christopher Kieren Mayers, "Electronics Recycling Implementation: Legislation, Business Implications, and Strategy," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
62. Viktor Sundberg, Director of European Affairs, Electrolux, "WEEE- The Impact on Producers and Industry," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
63. UK Department of Trade and Industry, "Discussion Paper of 28 March 2003 by the UK Government, Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government, Northern Ireland Administration on the Implementation of Directives of the European Council and Parliament: 2002/96/EC of 27 January 2003 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and 2002/95/EC of 27 January 2003 Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (ROHS)," Publication URN 03/811, London, available at 〈www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/weee/index.htm〉, accessed April 13, 2003. The report estimated collection at £141 to £211 per tonne, treatment at £123 to £192 per tonne, and re-use and recovery at £64 to £106 per tonne. Annual information provision costs were estimated to be £18 million to inform consumers, £7 million to inform treatment facilities, and £12 million to support the UK and EU's program registers.
64. Letsrecycle.com, "Manufacturers Link Up to Tackle Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment," 2002, available at 〈www.letsrecycle.com/wasteman/news.jsp?story=1844〉, accessed January 8, 2003.
65. European Commission, "Explanatory Memorandum to the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment, COM(2000) 347 final," Brussels, 2000.
66. Christopher Kieren Mayers, "Electronics Recycling Implementation: Legislation, Business Implications, and Strategy," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
67. The first study was conducted in 1999 and revised in 2002. The revised version found that most environmental impact categories would improve by at least 10% for PCs, televisions, lawnmowers, and vacuum cleaners, and many would improve by over 50%. However, recycling of washing machines and refrigerators were expected to increase hazardous waste and water toxicity. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Life Cycle Analysis of the WEEE Directive and its implications for the UK," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 2002; Ecobalance UK and Dames & Moore, "Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Financial Analysis of the Proposal for a Directive on Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Final Report, (ECO UK/C134)," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 1999; Anne Landfield, "An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Analysis of the Implications of Implementing the Proposed Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive," presented at the International Conference & Exhibition on Life Cycle Assessment: Tools for Sustainability, Arlington, VA, April 25-27, 2000.
68. The first study was conducted in 1999 and revised in 2002. The revised version found that most environmental impact categories would improve by at least 10% for PCs, televisions, lawnmowers, and vacuum cleaners, and many would improve by over 50%. However, recycling of washing machines and refrigerators were expected to increase hazardous waste and water toxicity. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Life Cycle Analysis of the WEEE Directive and its implications for the UK," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 2002; Ecobalance UK and Dames & Moore, "Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Financial Analysis of the Proposal for a Directive on Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Final Report, (ECO UK/C134)," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 1999; Anne Landfield, "An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Analysis of the Implications of Implementing the Proposed Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive," presented at the International Conference & Exhibition on Life Cycle Assessment: Tools for Sustainability, Arlington, VA, April 25-27, 2000.
69. The first study was conducted in 1999 and revised in 2002. The revised version found that most environmental impact categories would improve by at least 10% for PCs, televisions, lawnmowers, and vacuum cleaners, and many would improve by over 50%. However, recycling of washing machines and refrigerators were expected to increase hazardous waste and water toxicity. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, "Environmental Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Life Cycle Analysis of the WEEE Directive and its implications for the UK," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 2002; Ecobalance UK and Dames & Moore, "Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Financial Analysis of the Proposal for a Directive on Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment, Final Report, (ECO UK/C134)," London, Department of Trade and Industry, 1999; Anne Landfield, "An Integrated Life Cycle Assessment and Financial Analysis of the Implications of Implementing the Proposed Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive," presented at the International Conference & Exhibition on Life Cycle Assessment: Tools for Sustainability, Arlington, VA, April 25-27, 2000.
70. Christopher Kieren Mayers, "Implications and Effectiveness of Producer Responsibility for the Disposal of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)," Doctoral Thesis, Department of Manufacturing and Engineering Systems, Brunel University, 2002.
71. Operating in "the shadow of regulation" by responding to these drivers, one might argue that resultant company actions are not truly "voluntary." I would counter that as long as such actions are not required, but rather represent a prudent move to enhance profits, it does indeed require voluntary initiative.
72. Markus Klausner and Chris T. Hendrickson, "Reverse-Logistics Strategy for Product Take-back," Interfaces, 30/3 (2000): 156-165.
73. Stephen Potter, "Transforming Frigidaire," co-design, 5-6 (1996): 81-83.
74. Fishbein, op. cit. See note 10.
75. Electronic Industries Alliance, "Environment," 2002, available at 〈www.eia.org/policy/environment.phtml〉, accessed November 23, 2002.
76. Bryce Hoffman, "Ford Finding Treasure in Trash," Automotive News, January 3, 2000: 16; Ford Motor Company, "Ford Plans Major Entry into Vehicle Recycling," 2002), available at 〈www.ford.com/en/ourCompany/environmentalInitiatives/ reduceReuseRecycle/fordPlans-MajorEntryIntoVehicleRecycling.htm〉, accessed May 20, 2002.
77. Bryce Hoffman, "Ford Finding Treasure in Trash," Automotive News, January 3, 2000: 16; Ford Motor Company, "Ford Plans Major Entry into Vehicle Recycling," 2002), available at 〈www.ford.com/en/ourCompany/environmentalInitiatives/ reduceReuseRecycle/fordPlans-MajorEntryIntoVehicleRecycling.htm〉, accessed May 20, 2002.
78. Kodak, "A Tale of Environmental Stewardship: The Single-Use Camera," available at 〈www.kodak.com/US/en/corp/environment/performance/recycling/ suc.shtml〉, accessed February 18, 2002.
79. Jonathan Yardley, "On Diapers and Other Disposables," The Washington Post, June 26, 1989: B2; Art Charlton and David Vanhorn, "Throwaway Goods, Uncle Sam Join Plastics on Environmental 'Hit List,'" The Star-Ledger, April 22, 1990.
80. Jonathan Yardley, "On Diapers and Other Disposables," The Washington Post, June 26, 1989: B2; Art Charlton and David Vanhorn, "Throwaway Goods, Uncle Sam Join Plastics on Environmental 'Hit List,'" The Star-Ledger, April 22, 1990.
81. Fishbein, op. cit.
82. Market refers to conducting a transaction on the spot market. Hierarchy refers to vertical integration, whereby a transaction is conducted in-house within one firm. Hybrid refers to transactions that do not fit within the aforementioned categories and includes long-term contracts, alliances, and joint ventures.
83. 〈www.eiae.org〉.
84. Gateway, "Recycle or Donate Your Old PC," (undated), available at 〈www.gateway.com/home/programs/tradein_recycle.shtml〉, accessed Apr. 15, 2002.
85. Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "NERC/EIA Consumer Electronics Recycling Event in NH," September 20, 2002; Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "Best Buy/ EIA/ FL DEP Collection Event in Orlando," October 22, 2002; Northwest Product Stewardship Council, "Products/Sectors - Electronic Equipment and Product Stewardship," 2002, available at 〈www.productstewardship.net/ products-ElectronicsBusinessPrograms.html〉, accessed November 24, 2002. Best Buy, in turn, hires recycling companies to carry out the recycling services. Business Wire, "Best Buy Announces Electronics Recycling Program," April 19, 2001.
86. Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "NERC/EIA Consumer Electronics Recycling Event in NH," September 20, 2002; Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "Best Buy/ EIA/ FL DEP Collection Event in Orlando," October 22, 2002; Northwest Product Stewardship Council, "Products/Sectors - Electronic Equipment and Product Stewardship," 2002, available at 〈www.productstewardship.net/ products-ElectronicsBusinessPrograms.html〉, accessed November 24, 2002. Best Buy, in turn, hires recycling companies to carry out the recycling services. Business Wire, "Best Buy Announces Electronics Recycling Program," April 19, 2001.
87. Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "NERC/EIA Consumer Electronics Recycling Event in NH," September 20, 2002; Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "Best Buy/ EIA/ FL DEP Collection Event in Orlando," October 22, 2002; Northwest Product Stewardship Council, "Products/Sectors - Electronic Equipment and Product Stewardship," 2002, available at 〈www.productstewardship.net/ products-ElectronicsBusinessPrograms.html〉, accessed November 24, 2002. Best Buy, in turn, hires recycling companies to carry out the recycling services. Business Wire, "Best Buy Announces Electronics Recycling Program," April 19, 2001.
88. Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "NERC/EIA Consumer Electronics Recycling Event in NH," September 20, 2002; Electronic Industries Alliance Consumer Education Initiative, "Best Buy/ EIA/ FL DEP Collection Event in Orlando," October 22, 2002; Northwest Product Stewardship Council, "Products/Sectors - Electronic Equipment and Product Stewardship," 2002, available at 〈www.productstewardship.net/ products-ElectronicsBusinessPrograms.html〉, accessed November 24, 2002. Best Buy, in turn, hires recycling companies to carry out the recycling services. Business Wire, "Best Buy Announces Electronics Recycling Program," April 19, 2001.
89. V.D.R. Guide, V. Jayaraman, R. Srivastava, and W.C. Benton, "Supply-Chain Management tor Recoverable Manufacturing Systems," Interfaces, 30/3 (2000): 125-142.
90. Personal communication with Butch Watson, Manager-Asset Recovery Services, Dell Financial Services, April 16, 2002.
91. Geraldo Ferrer and D. Clay Whybark, "From Garbage to Goods: Successful Remanufacturing Systems and Skills," Business Horizons, 43/6 (2000): 55-64.
92. CECED, "Initiatives undertaken by EU Member States and Norway and Switzerland to deal with take-back and proper treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE): Status report," Brussels, European Committee of Manufacturers of Domestic Equipment, 2002.
93. RVF - The Swedish Association of Waste Management, "Swedish Waste Management 2002: Electric and Electronic Waste," Malmö, Sweden, 2002.
94. These companies are RENAS AS, Hvitevareretur AS, and Elektronikkretur AS.
95. El-RETUR, "Environmental Report 2001," Oslo, Elektronikkretur AS and Hvitevareretur AS, 2002.
96. Vanessa Houlder, "Councils Clash with Electrical Goods Industry Over Waste Laws," Financial Times (London), December 28, 2002, p. 4; Hewlett-Packard, "Braun, Electrolux, HP and Sony launch the first pan-European recycling platform," December 18, 2002.
97. Vanessa Houlder, "Councils Clash with Electrical Goods Industry Over Waste Laws," Financial Times (London), December 28, 2002, p. 4; Hewlett-Packard, "Braun, Electrolux, HP and Sony launch the first pan-European recycling platform," December 18, 2002.
98. Christopher Kieren Mayers, "Electronics Recycling Implementation: Legislation, Business Implications, and Strategy," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
99. IBM, "IBM PC Recycling Service," (undated), available at 〈www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/products/pcrservice.phtml〉, accessed January 25, 2002.
100. IBM, "2001 Environment and Well-Being Report - Product Stewardship," Somers, NY, 2001, pp. 18-22.
101. I b i d.
102. Ferrer and Whybark, op. cit.
103. Personal communication with Butch Watson, Manager-Asset Recovery Services, Dell Financial Services, April 16, 2002.
104. Kodak, "A Tale of Environmental Stewardship: the Single-Use Camera," 2001, available at 〈www.kodak.com/US/en/corp/environment/performance/recycling/ suc.shtml〉, accessed May 15, 2002.
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107. Benjamin Klein and Keith B. Leffler, "The Role of Market Forces in Assuring Contractual Performance," Journal of Political Economy, 89/4 (1981): 615-641.
108. Maureen Hickman, Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance, "U.S. Policy and Developments on EPR for Electronics," presented at the European Electronics Take-back Legislation: Impacts on Business Strategy and Global Trade Workshop, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, October 17-18, 2002.
109. Gray Davis, "SB 1523 veto message," September 30, 2002, available at 〈www.governor.ca.gov/govsite/msdocs/press_release/ L02_246_SB_1523_veto_message.doc〉; Gray Davis, "SB 1613 veto message" September 30, 2002, available at 〈www.governor.ca.gov/govsite/msdocs/press_release/ L02_246_SB_1619_veto_message.doc〉.
110. Gray Davis, "SB 1523 veto message," September 30, 2002, available at 〈www.governor.ca.gov/govsite/msdocs/press_release/ L02_246_SB_1523_veto_message.doc〉; Gray Davis, "SB 1613 veto message" September 30, 2002, available at 〈www.governor.ca.gov/govsite/msdocs/press_release/ L02_246_SB_1619_veto_message.doc〉.