Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa

Clinical Infectious Diseases

Volumn 36, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 652-662

  Holmes, Charles B ^a,d   Losina, Elena ^b   Walensky, Rochelle P ^a   Yazdanpanah, Yazdan ^c   Freedberg, Kenneth A ^a,b  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^c CENTRE HOSPITALIER DE TOURCOING   (France)

^d Division of General Medicine   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BACTERIAL PNEUMONIA; CANDIDIASIS; COCHRANE LIBRARY; CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; DISEASE CONTROL; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INCIDENCE; LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; MALARIA; MEDLINE; MICROSPORUM; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; MYCOSIS; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PARASITOSIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SALMONELLOSIS; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TOXOPLASMOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS; VIRUS INFECTION;

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; AIDS-RELATED OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CHEMOPREVENTION; COHORT STUDIES; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; MYCOBACTERIUM INFECTIONS; MYCOSES; PARASITIC DISEASES;

EID: 0037371389     PISSN: 10584838     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/367655     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Morgan D, Whitworth J. The natural history of HIV-1 infection in Africa. Nat Med 2001; 7:143-5.
2. UNAIDS/World Health Organization. AIDS epidemic update, December 2001. UNAIDS/01.74E-WHO/CDS/CSR/NCS/2001.2. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/epidemic_update/report_dec01/index.html. Accessed 12 April 2002.
3. Piot P, Bartos M, Ghys PD, Walker N, Schwartlander B. The global impact of HIV/AIDS. Nature 2001; 410:968-73.
4. UNAIDS. Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, June 2000. UNAIDS/00.13E. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/epidemic_update/report_june00/index.html. Accessed 12 April 2002.
5. Urassa M, Boerma JT, Isingo R, et al. The impact of HIV/AIDS on mortality and household mobility in rural Tanzania. AIDS 2001; 15:2017-23.
6. Dixon S, McDonald S, Roberts J. The impact of HIV and AIDS on Africa's economic development. BMJ 2002; 324:232-4.
7. Farmer P, Leandre F, Mukherjee JS, et al. Community-based approaches to HIV treatment in resource-poor settings. Lancet 2001; 358:404-9.
8. Badri M, Ehrlich R, Wood R, Maartens G. Initiating co-trimoxazole prophylaxis in HIV-infected patients in Africa: an evaluation of the provisional WHO/UNAIDS recommendations. AIDS 2001; 15:1143-8.
9. Anglaret X, Chene G, Attia A, et al. Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomised trial. Cotrimo-CI Study Group. Lancet 1999; 353:1463-8.
10. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among HIV-infected persons - 2002: recommendations of the US Public Health Service and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002; 51(RR-8):1-60.
11. Grant AD, Kaplan JE, De Cock KM. Preventing opportunistic infections among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in African countries. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 65:810-21.
12. Laurent C, Diakhate N, Gueye NF, et al. The Senegalese government's highly active antiretroviral therapy initiative: an 18-month follow-up study. AIDS 2002; 16:1363-70.
13. Diop Y, Bonard D, Ba-Gomis O, et al. Prospective trial of CBV + IBV in West Africa [abstract 492]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 8th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (Chicago), 2001. Available at: http://www.retroconference.org/2001/abstracts/abstracts/abstracts/492.htm. Accessed 20 April 2002.
14. Landman R, Schiemann R, Thiam S, et al. Evaluation at 6 months of a once-a-day HAART regimen in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected adults in Denegal (ANRS 12-04 Study) [abstract 491]. In: Programs and abstracts of the 8th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (Chicago), 2001. Available at: http://www.retroconference.org/2001/abstracts/abstracts/abstracts/491.htm. Accessed 20 April 2002.
15. Enger C, Graham N, Peng Y, et al. Survival from early, intermediate, and late stages of HIV infection. JAMA 1996; 275:1329-34.
16. Moore RD, Chaisson RE. Natural history of HIV infection in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 1999; 13:1933-42.
17. Chaisson RE, Gallant JE, Keruly JC, Moore RD. Impact of opportunistic disease on survival in patients with HIV infection. AIDS 1998; 12:29-33.
18. Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents, 2002. 4 February 2002. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/adult/AAMay23.pdf; accessed on 20 May 2002.
19. Colebunders RL, Latif AS. Natural history and clinical presentation of HIV-1 infection in adults. AIDS 1991; 5:S103-12.
20. Grant AD, Djomand G, De Cock KM. Natural history and spectrum of disease in adults with HIV/AIDS in Africa. AIDS 1997; 11:S43-54.
21. Arthur G, Nduba VN, Kariuki SM, Kimari J, Bhatt SM, Gilks CF. Trends in bloodstream infections among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults admitted to a hospital in Nairobi, Kenya, during the last decade. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:248-56.
22. Colvin M, Dawood S, Kleinschmidt I, Mullick S, Lallo U. Prevalence of HIV and HIV-related diseases in the adult medical wards of a tertiary hospital in Durban, South Africa. Int J STD AIDS 2001; 12:386-9.
23. Atzori C, Bruno A, Chichino G, Gatti S, Scaglia M. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and tuberculosis in Tanzanian patients infected with HIV. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993; 87:55-6.
24. Cochereau I, Mlika-Cabanne N, Godinaud P, et al. AIDS related eye disease in Burundi, Africa. Br J Ophthalmol 1999; 83:339-42.
25. Batungwanayo J, Taelman H, Lucas S, et al. Pulmonary disease associated with the human immunodeficiency virus in Kigali, Rwanda: a fiberoptic bronchoscopic study of 111 cases of undetermined etiology. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:1591-6.
26. Kamanfu G, Mlika-Cabanne N, Girard PM, et al. Pulmonary complications of human immunodeficiency virus infection in Bujumbura, Burundi. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:658-63.
27. Grant A, Sidibe K, Domoua K, et al. Spectrum of disease among HIV-infected adults hospitalised in a respiratory medicine unit in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998; 2:926-34.
28. Daley CL, Mugusi F, Chen LL, et al. Pulmonary complications of HIV infection in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: role of bronchoscopy and bronchoalveolar lavage. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:105-10.
29. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Charalambos S, et al. Morbidity and mortality in South African gold miners: impact of untreated disease due to human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:1251-8.
30. Morgan D, Mahe C, Mayanja B, Whitworth JA. Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2002; 324:193-6.
31. Attia A, Huet C, Anglaret X, et al. HIV-1-related morbidity in adults, Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a nidus for bacterial diseases. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001; 28:478-86.
32. Quigley MA, Mwinga A, Hosp M, et al. Long-term effect of preventive therapy for tuberculosis in a cohort of HIV-infected Zambian adults. AIDS 2001; 15:215-22.
33. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Clayton TC, et al. HIV infection and silicosis: the impact of two potent risk factors on the incidence of mycobacterial disease in South African miners. AIDS 2000; 14:2759-68.
34. Wood R, Maartens G, Lombard CJ. Risk factors for developing tuberculosis in HIV-1-infected adults from communities with a low or very high incidence of tuberculosis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000; 23:75-80.
35. Whalen CC, Johnson JL, Okwera A, et al. A trial of three regimens to prevent tuberculosis in Ugandan adults infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Uganda-Case Western Reserve University Research Collaboration. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:801-8.
36. Hawken MP, Meme HK, Elliott LC, et al. Isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis in HIV-1-infected adults: results of a randomized controlled trial. AIDS 1997; 11:875-82.
37. Gilks CF, Godfrey-Faussett P, Batchelor BI, et al. Recent transmission of tuberculosis in a cohort of HIV-1-infected female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS 1997; 11:911-8.
38. Leroy V, Msellati P, Lepage P, et al. Four years of natural history of HIV-1 infection in African women: a prospective cohort study in Kigali (Rwanda), 1988-1993. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995; 9:415-21.
39. Braun MM, Badi N, Ryder RW, et al. A retrospective cohort study of the risk of tuberculosis among women of childbearing age with HIV infection in Zaire. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143:501-4.
40. Allen S, Batungwanayo J, Kerlikowske K, et al. Two-year incidence of tuberculosis in cohorts of HIV-infected and uninfected urban Rwandan women. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1439-44.
41. Grant AD, Djomand G, Smets P, et al. Profound immunosuppression across the spectrum of opportunistic disease among hospitalized HIV-infected adults in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. AIDS 1997; 11:1357-64.
42. Mukadi Y, Perriens JH, St Louis ME, et al. Spectrum of immunodeficiency in HIV-1-infected patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Zaire. Lancet 1993; 342:143-6.
43. Ackah AN, Coulibaly D, Digbeu H, et al. Response to treatment, mortality, and CD4 lymphocyte counts in HIV-infected persons with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire. Lancet 1995; 345:607-10.
44. Lucas SB, Hounnou A, Peacock C, et al. The mortality and pathology of HIV infection in a West African city. AIDS 1993; 7:1569-79.
45. Rana FS, Hawken MP, Mwachari C, et al. Autopsy study of HIV-1-positive and HIV-1-negative adult medical patients in Nairobi, Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000; 24:23-9.
46. Waddell RD, Lishimpi K, von Reyn CF, et al. Bacteremia due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis or M. boris, bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) among HIV-positive children and adults in Zambia. AIDS 2001; 15:55-60.
47. Gilks CF, Brindle RJ, Mwachari C, et al. Disseminated Mycobacterium avium infection among HIV-infected patients in Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995; 8:195-8.
48. Fordham von Reyn C, Arbeit RD, Tosteson AN, et al. The international epidemiology of disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in AIDS. International MAC Study Group. AIDS 1996; 10:1025-32.
49. Archibald LK, McDonald LC, Nwanyanwu O, et al. A hospital-based prevalence survey of bloodstream infections in febrile patients in Malawi: implications for diagnosis and therapy. J Infect Dis 2000; 181:1414-20.
50. Archibald LK, den Dulk MO, Pallangyo KJ, Reller LB. Fatal Mycobacterium tuberculosis bloodstream infections in febrile hospitalized adults in Dares Salaam, Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26:290-6.
51. Okello DO, Sewankambo N, Goodgame R, et al. Absence of bacteremia with Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare in Ugandan patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1990; 162:208-10.
52. Ssali FN, Kamya MR, Wabwire-Mangen F, et al. A prospective study of community-acquired bloodstream infections among febrile adults admitted to Mulago Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1998; 19:484-9.
53. von Gottberg A, Sacks L, Machala S, Blumberg L. Utility of blood cultures and incidence of mycobacteremia in patients with suspected tuberculosis in a South African infectious disease referral hospital. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2001; 5:80-6.
54. Koulla-Shiro S, Kuaban C, Belec L. Acute community-acquired bacterial pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected and non-HIV-infected adult patients in Cameroon: aetiology and outcome. Tuber Lung Dis 1996; 77:47-51.
55. Yoshimine H, Oishi K, Mubiru F, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in Ugandan adults: short-term parenteral ampicillin therapy for bacterial pneumonia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001; 64:172-7.
56. Scott JA, Hall AJ, Muyodi C, et al. Aetiology, outcome, and risk factors for mortality among adults with acute pneumonia in Kenya. Lancet 2000; 355:1225-30.
57. French N, Nakiyingi J, Carpenter LM, et al. 23-Valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomised and placebo controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 355:2106-11.
58. Gilks CF, Ojoo SA, Ojoo JC, et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease in a cohort of predominantly HIV-1 infected female sex-workers in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 1996; 347:718-23.
59. French N, Gray K, Watera C, et al. Cryptococcal infection in a cohort of HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. AIDS 2002; 16:1031-8.
60. Wiktor SZ, Sassan-Morokro M, Grant AD, et al. Efficacy of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole prophylaxis to decrease morbidity and mortality in HIV-1-infected patients with tuberculosis in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999; 353:1469-75.
61. Maynart M, Lievre L, Sow PS, et al. Primary prevention with cotrimoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults: results of the pilot study in Dakar, Senegal. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001; 26:130-6.
62. French N, Nakiyingi J, Lugada E, Watera C, Whitworth JA, Gilks CF. Increasing rates of malarial fever with deteriorating immune status in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults. AIDS 2001; 15:899-906.
63. Whitworth J, Morgan D, Quigley M, et al. Effect of HIV-1 and increasing immunosuppression on malaria parasitaemia and clinical episodes in adults in rural Uganda: a cohort study. Lancet 2000; 356:1051-6.
64. Morgan D, Mahe C, Malamba S, Okongo M, Mayanja B, Whitworth J. Herpes zoster and HIV-1 infection in a rural Ugandan cohort. AIDS 2001; 15:223-9.
65. Gilks CF, Brindle RJ, Otieno LS, et al. Life-threatening bacteraemia in HIV-1 seropositive adults admitted to hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 1990; 336:545-9.
66. Germani Y, Minssart P, Vohito M, et al. Etiologies of acute, persistent, and dysenteric diarrheas in adults in Bangui, Central African Republic, in relation to human immunodeficiency virus serostatus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 59:1008-14.
67. Mwachari C, Batchelor BI, Paul J, Waiyaki PG, Gilks CF. Chronic diarrhoea among HIV-infected adult patients in Nairobi, Kenya. J Infect 1998; 37:48-53.
68. Frimpong EH, Lartey RA. Study of the aetiologic agents of meningitis in Kumasi, Ghana, with special reference to Cryptococcus neoformans. East Afr Med J 1998; 75:516-9.
69. Aseffa A, Rahlenbeck S, Alemu S. Cryptococcosis in AIDS patients in Ethiopia. J Infect 1997; 35:323-4.
70. Silber E, Sonnenberg P, Ho KC, et al. Meningitis in a community with a high prevalence of tuberculosis and HIV infection. J Neurol Sci 1999; 162:20-6.
71. Schutte CM, Van der Meyden CH, Magazi DS. The impact of HIV on meningitis as seen at a South African Academic Hospital (1994 to 1998). Infection 2000; 28:3-7.
72. Perriens JH, Mussa M, Luabeya MK, et al. Neurological complications of HIV-1-seropositive internal medicine inpatients in Kinshasa, Zaire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992; 5:333-40.
73. Heyderman RS, Gangaidzo IT, Hakim JG, et al. Cryptococcal meningitis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in Harare, Zimbabwe. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 26:284-9.
74. Okongo M, Morgan D, Mayanja B, Ross A, Whitworth J. Causes of death in a rural, population-based human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) natural history cohort in Uganda. Int J Epidemiol 1998; 27:698-702.
75. McLeod DT, Neill P, Gwanzura L, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients with AIDS in Central Africa. Respir Med 1990; 84:225-8.
76. Hargreaves NJ, Kadzakumanja O, Phiri S, et al. What causes smear-negative pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi, an area of high HIV seroprevalence? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2001; 5:113-22.
77. Machiels G, Urban MI. Pneumocystis carinii as a cause of pneumonia in HIV-infected patients in Lusaka, Zambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992; 86:399-400.
78. Carme B, Mboussa J, Andzin M, Mbouni E, Mpele P, Datry A. Pneumocystis carinii is rare in AIDS in Central Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991; 85:80.
79. Mahomed AG, Murray J, Klempman S, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in HIV infected patients from South Africa. East Afr Med J 1999; 76:80-4.
80. Malin AS, Gwanzura LK, Klein S, Robertson VJ, Musvaire P, Mason PR. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in Zimbabwe. Lancet 1995; 346:1258-61.
81. Skalsky J, Ndumbe PM. Characteristics of HIV/AIDS patients attending a rural hospital in Cameroon. Manyemen HIV/AIDS Team. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 1993; 73:209-16.
82. Hodgson TA. HIV-associated oral lesions: prevalence in Zambia. Oral Dis 1997; 3(Suppl 1):S46-50.
83. Ndour M, Sow PS, Coll-Seck AM, et al. AIDS caused by HIV1 and HIV2 infection: are there clinical differences? Results of AIDS surveillance 1986-97 at Fann Hospital in Dakar, Senegal. Trop Med Int Health 2000; 5:687-91.
84. Muller O, Moser R. The clinical and parasitological presentation of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Uganda is unaffected by HIV-1 infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990; 84:336-8.
85. Nwanyanwu OC, Kumwenda N, Kazembe PN, et al. Malaria and human immunodeficiency virus infection among male employees of a sugar estate in Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997; 91:567-9.
86. Allen S, Van de Perre P, Serufilira A, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus and malaria in a representative sample of childbearing women in Kigali, Rwanda. J Infect Dis 1991; 164:67-71.
87. Verhoeff FH, Brabin BJ, Hart CA, Chimsuku L, Kazembe P, Broadhead RL. Increased prevalence of malaria in HIV-infected pregnant women and its implications for malaria control. Trop Med Int Health 1999; 4:5-12.
88. Steketee RW, Wirima JJ, Bloland PB, et al. Impairment of a pregnant woman's acquired ability to limit Plasmodium falciparum by infection with human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 55:42-9.
89. Cegielski JP, Ortega YR, McKee S, et al. Cryptosporidium, Enterocytozoon, and Cyclospora infections in pediatric and adult patients with diarrhea in Tanzania. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28:314-21.
90. Gumbo T, Sarbah S, Gangaidzo IT, et al. Intestinal parasites in patients with diarrhea and human immunodeficiency virus infection in Zimbabwe. AIDS 1999; 13:819-21.
91. Kelly P, Baboo KS, Wolff M, Ngwenya B, Luo N, Farthing MJ. The prevalence and aetiology of persistent diarrhoea in adults in urban Zambia. Acta Trop 1996; 61:183-90.
92. Conlon CP, Pinching AJ, Perera CU, Moody A, Luo NP, Lucas SB. HIV-related enteropathy in Zambia: a clinical, microbiological, and histological study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990; 42:83-8.
93. Gomez Morales MA, Atzori C, Ludovisi A, Rossi P, Scaglia M, Pozio E. Opportunistic and non-opportunistic parasites in HIV-positive and negative patients with diarrhoea in Tanzania. Trop Med Parasitol 1995; 46:109-14.
94. Atzori C, Bruno A, Chichino G, et al. HIV-1 and parasitic infections in rural Tanzania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1993; 87:585-93.
95. Ravera M, Reggiori A, Cocozza E. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum in AIDS and immunocompetent patients in Uganda. Int J STD AIDS 1994; 5:302-3.
96. Mengesha B. Cryptosporidiosis among medical patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Tikur Anbessa Teaching Hospital, Ethiopia. East Afr Med J 1994; 71:376-8.
97. van Gool T, Luderhoff E, Nathoo KJ, Kiire CF, Dankert J, Mason PR. High prevalence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi infections among HIV-positive individuals with persistent diarrhoea in Harare, Zimbabwe. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1995; 89:478-80.
98. Edhonu-Elyetu Y. Significance of herpes zoster in HIV/AIDS in Kweneng district, Botswana. East Afr Med J 1998; 75:379-81.
99. Denhe K, Dhlakama D, Richter C, Mawadza M, McClean D, Huss R. Pattern of HIV-infection in Hurungwe district, Mashonaland West, Zimbabwe. Cent Afr J Med 1992; 38:139-43.
100. Jaffar S, Ariyoshi K, Frith P, et al. Retinal manifestations of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections among hospital patients in The Gambia, West Africa. Trop Med Int Health 1999; 4:487-92.
101. Lewallen S, Kumwenda J, Maher D, Harries AD. Retinal findings in Malawian patients with AIDS. Br J Ophthalmol 1994; 78:757-9.
102. Godfrey-Faussett P. Tuberculosis preventive therapy in people living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS 1999; 13:1581-2.
103. Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH, et al. Isoniazid prophylaxis for tuberculosis in HIV infection: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. AIDS 1999; 13:501-7.
104. Anglaret X, Sylla-Koko F, Bonard D, et al. Susceptibilities to cotrimoxazole of pathogens isolated from blood and stool specimens in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, 1994 to 1996. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35:1915.
105. Kariuki S, Gilks C, Corkill J, et al. Multi-drug resistant non-typhi salmonellae in Kenya. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38:425-34.
106. Sow AI, Faye Niang MA, Dieng M, et al. Sensitivity to cotrimoxazole of bacteria isolated at the Central University Hospital of Fann, Dakar. Dakar Med 1999; 44:20-4.
107. Boeree MJ, Harries AD, Zijlstra EE, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME. Cotrimoxazole in HIV-1 infection. Lancet 1999; 354:334 [discussion on 335].
108. Feldman C, Glatthaar M, Morar R, et al. Bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia in HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative adults. Chest 1999; 116:107-14.
109. Karstaedt AS, Khoosal M, Crewe-Brown HH. Pneumococcal bacteremia in adults in Soweto, South Africa, during the course of a decade. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:610-4.
110. Anglaret X. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet 2001; 358:1027-8.