The evolution of modern corals and their early history

Earth-Science Reviews

Volumn 60, Issue 3-4, 2003, Pages 195-225

  Stanley Jr , George D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

Author keywords

Anthozoa; Biochemistry; Corals; Evolution; Molecular biology; Reefs; Scleractinia; Zooxanthellae

Indexed keywords

CORAL; EVOLUTION; SYMBIOSIS; TRIASSIC; ZOOXANTHELLA;

EID: 0037307789     PISSN: 00128252     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00104-6     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Alloiteau, J., 1952. Madréporaires post-paléozoïques. In: Privetau, J. (Ed.), Traité de Paléontologie. Masson et Cie, Paris, pp. 539-684.
2. Baron-Szabo, R.C., 2000. Late Campanian-Maastrichtian corals from the United Arab Emirates-Oman border region. Bulletin of the Natural History Museum London (Geology) 56, 91-131.
3. Beauvais, L., 1984. Evolution and diversification of Jurassic Scleractinia. Palaeontographica Americana 54, 219-224.
4. Berntson, E.A., France, S.C., Mullineaux, L.S., 1999. Phylogenetic relationships within the Class Anthozoa (Phylum Cnidaria) based on nuclear 18S rDNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 13, 417-433.
5. Bowring, S.A., Erwin, D.H., Jin, Y.G., Martin, M.W., Davidek, K., Wang, W., 1998. U/Pb zircon geochronology and tempo of the end-Permian mass extinction. Science 280, 1039-1045.
6. Budd, A.F., 2000. Diversity and extinction in the Cenozoic history of Caribbean reefs. Coral Reefs 19, 25-35.
7. Buddemeier, R.W., 1994. Symbiosis, calcification and environmental interactions. In: Doumenge, F. (Ed.), Past and Present Biomineralization Processes: Considerations About the Carbonate Cycle. IUCN-COE Workshop. Monaco Musé Océanographique, Monaco, pp. 119-131.
8. 2 and evolution among the Scleractinia. Bulletin de l'Institut Oceanographique 14 (4), 33-38.
9. Buddemeier, R.W., Fautin, D.G., 1997. Saturation state and the evolution and biogeography of symbiotic calcification. In: Alleman, D., Cuif, J.-P. (Eds.), 7th International Symposium on Biomineralization, Monaco, pp. 23-32.
10. Buddemeier, R.W., Kinzie III, R.A., 1976. Coral growth. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review 14, 183-225.
11. Cairns, S.D., 1999. Species richness of recent Scleractinia. Atoll Research Bulletin 459, 1-46.
12. Chen, C.A., Odorico, D.M., Lohuis, M.T., Veron, J.E.N, Miller, D.J., 1995. Systematic relationships within the Anthozoa (Cnidaria: Anthozoa) using the 5′-end of the 28S rDNA. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 4, 175-202.
13. Coates, A.G., Jackson, J.B.D., 1987. Clonal growth, algal symbiosis and reef formation by corals. Paleobiology 13 (4), 363-378.
14. Coates, A.G., Oliver Jr., W.A., 1973. Coloniality in zoantharian corals. In: Boardman, R.S., Cheetham, A.H., Oliver, W.A. (Eds.), Animal Colonies: Development and Function Through Time. Dowden Hutchinson, and Ross, Stroudsburg, pp. 3-25.
15. Constantz, B.R., 1986. Coral skeleton construction: A physiochemically dominated process. Palaios 1, 152-157.
16. Copper, P., 1989. Enigmas in Phanerozoic reef development. Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Paleontology 8, 371-385.
17. Copper, P., 2001. Evolution, radiations, and extinctions in Proterozoic to Mid-Paleozoic reefs. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 89-119.
18. Cowen, R., 1988. The role of algal symbiosis in reefs through time. Palaios 3, 221-227.
19. Cuif, J.-P., 1981. Microstructure versus morphology in the skeleton of Triassic scleractinian corals. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 25 (3-4), 361-374.
20. Cuif, J.-P., Dauphin, Y., Gautret, P., 1997. Biomineralization features in scleractinian coral skeletons: Source of new taxonomic criteria. Bolletino Real Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural 92, 129-141.
21. Deng, Z., Kong, L., 1984. Middle Triassic corals and sponges from southern Guizhou and eastern Yunnan. Acta Paleontologica Sinica 23, 489-504.
22. Erwin, D.H., 1993. The Great Paleozoic Crisis: Life and Death in the Permian. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
23. Erwin, D.H., 1994. The Permo-Triassic extinction. Nature 367, 231-236.
24. Ezaki, Y., 1997. The Permian coral Numidiaphyllum: New insights into anthozoan phylogeny and Triassic scleractinian origins. Palaeontology 40 (Part 1), 1-14.
25. Ezaki, Y., 1998. Paleozoic Scleractinia: Progenitors or extinct experiments? Paleobiology 24 (2), 227-234.
26. Ezaki, Y., 2000. Palaeoecological and phylogenetic implications of a new scleractiniamorph genus from Permian sponge reefs, south China. Palaeontology 43 (2), 199-217.
27. Fagerstrom, J.A., 1994. The history of Devonian-Carboniferous reef communities: Extinctions, effects, recovery. Facies 30, 177-191.
28. Fautin, D.G., Lowenstein, J.M., 1993. Phylogenetic relationships among scleractinians, actiniarians, and corallimorpharians (Coelenterata: Anthozoa). Proceedings of the Seventh International Coral Reef Symposium, Guam, June 22-27, 1992, vol. 2, pp. 665-670.
29. Fautin, D.G., Romano, S.L., Oliver, Jr., W.A., (Phylogeny web site) http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Zoantharia&contgroup=Anthozoa &dynnodemd=.
30. Fedorowski, J., 1997. Rugosa and Scleractinia - a commentary on some methods of phylogenetic reconstructions. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 42 (3), 446-456.
31. Fischer, A.G., 1981. Climatic oscillations in the biosphere. In: Nitecki, M.H. (Ed.), Biotic Crises in Geological and Evolutionary Time. Academic Press, New York, pp. 103-131.
32. Flügel, E., 1994. Pangean shelf carbonates: Controls and paleoclimatic significance of Permian and Triassic reefs. In: Klein, G.D. (Ed.), Pangea: Paleoclimate, Tectonics and Sedimentation During Accretion, Zenith, and Breakup of a Supercontinent. Geological Society of America Special Paper, Boulder, pp. 247-266.
33. Flügel, E., Senowbari-Daryan, B., 1996. Evolution of Triassic reef biota: State of the art. In: Reitner, J., Neuweiler, F., Gunkel, F. (Eds.), Global and Regional Controls on Biogenetic Sedimentation: I. Reef Evolution Research Reports. Gottinger Arbeiten Paläontologie 2, pp. 285-294.
34. Flügel, E., Senowbari-Daryan, B., 2001. Triassic reefs of the Tethys. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 217-249.
35. France, S.C., Rosel, P.E., Agenbroad, J.E., Mullineaux, L.S., Kocher, T.D., 1996. DNA sequence variation of mitochondrial largesubunit rRNA provides support for a two subclass organization of the Anthozoa (Cnidaria). Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology 5, 15-28.
36. Gattuso, J.P., Frankignoule, M., Bourge, I., Romaine, S., Buddemeier, R.W., 1998. Effect of calcium carbonate saturation of seawater on coral calcification. Global and Planetary Change 18, 37-46.
37. Gattuso, J.-P., Allemand, D., Frankignoulle, M., 1999. Photosynthesis and calcification at cellular, organismal and community levels in coral reefs: A review on interactions and control by carbonate chemistry. American Zoologist 39, 160-183.
38. Gautret, P., Cuif, J.-P., Stolarski, J., 2000. Organic components of the skeleton of scleractinian corals-evidence from in situ acridine orange staining. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 45, 107-118.
39. Gili, E., Masse, J.-P., Skelton, P.W., 1994. Rudists as gregarious sediment-dwellers, not reef-builders, on Cretaceous carbonate platforms. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatolgy, Palaeoecology 118, 245-267.
40. Goreau, T.F., Goreau, N.I., 1959. The physiology of skeleton formation in corals: II. Calcium deposition by hermatypic corals under various conditions in the reef. Biological Bulletin 117, 239-250.
41. Goreau, T.J., Goreau, N.I., Trench, R.K., Hayes, R.L., Marshall, A.T., 1996. Calcification rates in corals. Science 274, 117-118.
42. Hallam, A., Goodfellow, W.D., 1990. Facies and geochemical evidence bearing on the end-Triassic disappearance of the Alpine reef system. Historical Biology 4, 131-138.
43. Hallock, P., 1997. Reefs and reef limestone in Earth history. In: Birkeland, C. (Ed.), Life and Death of Coral Reefs. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 13-42.
44. Hallock, P., 2001. Coral reefs, carbonate sediments, nutrients and global change. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 387-427.
45. Hill, D., 1981. Rugosa and Tabulata. In: Teichert, C. (Ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part F, Coelenterata, Supplement 1, Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press, Lawrence.
46. Hubbard, D.K., Gill, I.P., Burke, R.B., 2001. The role of framework in modern reefs and its application to ancient systems. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 351-386.
47. Iljina, T.G., 1965. Late Permian and early Triassic tetracorals from Trans-Caucasia. Akademiya Nauk SSR, Paleontologicheskiy Institut Trudy 108, 1-104.
48. Isozaki, Y., 1997. Permo-Triassic boundary superanoxia and stratified superocean: Records from lost deep sea. Science 276, 235-238.
49. James, N.P., 1974. Diagenesis of scleractinian corals in the subaerial vadose environment. Journal of Paleontology 48, 785-799.
50. Jin, Y.G., Wang, Y., Wang, W., Shang, Q.H., Cao, C.Q., Erwin, D.H., 2000. Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permian-Triassic boundary in South China. Science 289, 432-436.
51. Johnson, C.C., Kauffman, E.G., 2001. Cretaceous evolution of reef ecosystems: A regional synthesis of the Caribbean tropics. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 311-349.
52. Kauffman, E.G., Fagerstrom, J.A., 1993. The Phanerozoic evolution of reef diversity. In: Ricklefs, R.E., Schluter, D. (Eds.), Species Diversity in Ecological Communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 315-329.
53. Kauffman, E.G., Johnson, C.C., 1988. The morphology and ecological evolution of Middle and Upper Cretaceous reef-building rudistids. Palaios 3, 194-216.
54. Kempe, S., Kaz'mierczak, J., 1994. The role of alkalinity in the evolution of ocean chemistry, organization of living systems, and biocalcification processes. In: Doumenge, F. (Ed.), Past and Present Biomineralization Processes: Considerations About the Carbonate Cycle. IUCN-COE Workshop. Monaco Muse' Oce'anographique, Monaco, pp. 61-117.
55. Kleypas, J.A., Buddemeier, R.W., Archer, D., Gattuso, J.-P., Langdon, C., Opdyke, B.N., 1999. Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs. Science 284, 118-120.
56. Knoll, A.H., Bambach, R.K., Canfield, D.E., Grotzinger, J.P., 1996. Comparative earth history and late Permian mass extinction. Science 273, 452-457.
57. Kramarsky-Winter, E., Fine, M., Loya, Y., 1997. Coral polyp expulsion. Nature 387, 137.
58. Lehrmann, D.J., 1999. Early Triassic calcimicrobial mounds and bistromes of the Nanpanjiang Basin, South China. Geology 27 (4), 359-362.
59. Leinfelder, R.R., 2001. Jurassic reef ecosystems. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 251-309.
60. Leinfelder, R.R., Krautter, M., Laternser, R., Nose, M., Schmid, D.U., Schweigert, G., Werner, W., Keupp, H., Brugger, H., Herrmann, H., Rehfeld-Kiefer, U., Schroeder, J.H., Reinhold, C., Koch, R., Zeiss, A., Schweizer, V., Christmann, H., Menges, G., Luterbacher, H., 1994. The origin of Jurassic reefs: Current research developments and results. Facies 31, 1-56.
61. Marshall, A.T., 1996. Calcification in hermatypic and ahermatypic corals. Science 271, 637-639.
62. Morycowa, E., 1988. Middle Triassic Scleractinia from the Cracow-Silesia region, Poland. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 33 (2), 91-121.
63. Muller-Parker, G., D'Elia, C.F., 1997. Interactions between corals and their symbiotic algae. In: Birkeland, C. (Ed.), Life and Death of Coral Reefs. Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 96-113.
64. Oliver Jr., W.A., 1980. The relationship of the scleractinian corals to the rugose corals. Paleobiology 6 (2), 146-160.
65. Oliver Jr., W.A., 1996. Origins and relationships of Paleozoic coral groups and the origin of the Scleractinia. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), Paleobiology and Biology of Corals. Paleontological Society, Pittsburgh, pp. 107-135.
66. Pawlowski, J., Bolivar, I., Fahrni, J., de Vargas, C., Bowser, S.S., 1999. Naked foraminiferans revealed. Nature 399, 27.
67. Pearse, V.B., Muscatine, L., 1971. Role of symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) in coral calcification. Biology Bulletin 141, 350-363.
68. Qi, W., 1984. An Anisian coral fauna in Guizhou, South China. Palaeontographica Americana 54, 187-190.
69. Railsback, L.B., Anderson, T.F., 1987. Control of Triassic seawater chemistry and temperature on the evolution of post-Paleozoic aragonite-secreting faunas. Geology 15, 1002-1005.
70. Reed, J.K., 1980. Distribution and structure of deep-water Oculina varicosa coral reefs off central eastern Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science 30, 667-677.
71. Reed, J.K., 1981. In situ growth rates of the scleractinian coral Oculina varicosa occurring with zooxanthellae on 6-M reefs and without on 80-M banks. Proceedings, Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, vol. 2, pp. 201-206.
72. Riedel, P., 1991. Korallen in der Trias de Tethys: Stratigraphische Reichweiten, Diversitätsmuster, Entwicklungstrends und Bedeutung als Rifforganismen. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fur Geologie und Bergbaustudenten in Österreich 37, 97-118.
73. Romano, S.L., 1996. A molecular perspective on the evolution of scleractinian corals. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), Paleobiology and Biology of Corals. Paleontological Society, Pittsburgh, pp. 39-59.
74. Romano, S.L., Cairns, S.D., 2000. Molecular phylogenetic hypotheses for the evolution of scleractinian corals. Bulletin of Marine Science 67 (3), 1043-1068.
75. Romano, S.L., Palumbi, S.R., 1996. Evolution of scleractinian corals inferred from molecular systematics. Science 271, 640-642.
76. Roniewicz, E., 1989. Triassic scleractinian corals of the Zlambach Beds, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria. Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse Denkschriften 126, 1-152.
77. Roniewicz, E., 1996. The key role of skeletal microstructure in recognizing high-rank scleractinian taxa in the stratigraphical record. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), Paleobiology and Biology of Corals. Paleontological Society, Pittsburgh, pp. 187-207.
78. Roniewicz, E., Morycowa, E., 1989. Triassic Scleractinia and the Triassic/Liassic boundary. Memoir of the Association of Australasian Palaeontolologists 8, 347-354.
79. Roniewicz, E., Morycowa, E., 1993. Evolution of the Scleractinia in the light of microstructural data. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 164, 233-240.
80. Rosen, B.R., 1981. The tropical high diversity enigma-the coral's-eye view. In: Greenwood, P.H., Forey, P.L. (Eds.), Chance, Change and Challenge: The Evolving Biosphere. British Museum (Natural History) and Cambridge Univ. Press, London, pp. 103-129.
81. Rosen, B.R., 1986. Modular growth and form of corals: A matter of metamers? In: Harper, J.L., Rosen, B.R., White, J. (Eds.), The Growth and Form of Modular Organisms. Proceedings of the Royal Society Discussion Meeting, 27-28 June, 1985. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (B) 313, pp. 115-142.
82. Rosen, B.R., 2000. Algal symbiosis, and the collapse and recovery of reef communities: Lazarus corals across the K-T boundary. In: Culver, S.J., Rawson, P.F. (Eds.), Biotic Response to Global Change: The Last 145 Million Years. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, pp. 164-180.
83. Rosen, B.R., Turnšek, D., 1989. Extinction patterns and biogeography of scleractinian corals across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary. Memoir of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists 8, 355-370.
84. Sammarco, P.W., 1982. Polyp bail-out: An escape response to environmental stress and a new means of reproduction in corals. Marine Ecology, Progress Series 10, 57-65.
85. Sandberg, P.A., 1983. An oscillating trend in Phanerozoic non-skeletal carbonate mineralogy. Nature 305, 19-22.
86. Schindewolf, O.H., 1942. Zur Kenntnis der Polycoelien und Plerophyllen: Eine Studie über den Bau der "Tetrakorallen" und ihre Beziehungen zu den Madreporarien. Abhandlungen des Reichsamts für Bodenforschung. Neue Folge 204, 1-324.
87. Schmidt, H., 1974. On the evolution of Anthozoa. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Coral Reefs, vol. 1. Great Barrier Reef Committee, Brisbane, pp. 533-560.
88. Schumacher, H., Zibrowius, H., 1985. What is hermatypic? A redefinition of ecological groups in corals and other organisms. Coral Reefs 4, 1-9.
89. Scott, R.W., 1988. Evolution of Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous reef biotas. Palaios 3, 184-193.
90. Scrutton, C.T., 1993. A new kilbuchophyllid coral from the Ordovician of the Southern Uplands, Scotland. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 164, 153-158.
91. Scrutton, C.T., 1997. The Palaeozoic corals, I: Origins and relationships. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society 51, 177-208.
92. Scrutton, C., 1999. Paleozoic corals: Their evolution and palaeoecology. Geology Today 15 (5), 184-193.
93. Scrutton, C.T., Clarkson, E.N.K., 1991. A new scleractinian-like coral from the Ordovician of the Southern Uplands, Scotland. Palaeontology 34, 179-194.
94. Smith, A.B., 1994. Systematics and the Fossil Record-Documenting Evolutionary Patterns. Blackwell, Oxford, 223 pp.
95. Smith, A.B., Morris, N.J., Gale, A.S., Rosen, B.R., 1995. Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) macrofossil assemblages and palaeoenvironments from a Tethyan carbonate platform succession, Oman Mountains. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 119, 155-168.
96. Sorauf, J.E., 1996. Biocrystallization models and skeletal structure of Phanerozoic corals. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), Paleobiology and Biology of Corals. Paleontological Society, Pittsburgh, pp. 159-187.
97. Stanley Jr., G.D., 1981. Early history of scleractinian corals and its geological consequences. Geology 9, 507-511.
98. Stanley Jr., G.D., 1988. The history of early Mesozoic reef communities: A three-step process. Palaios 3, 170-183.
99. Stanley Jr., G.D., 2001. Introduction to reef ecosystems and their evolution. In: Stanley Jr., G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishing/Plenum, New York, pp. 1-39.
100. Stanley Jr., G.D., Beauvais, L., 1994. Corals from an early Jurassic coral reef in British Columbia: Refuge on an oceanic island reef. Lethaia 27, 35-47.
101. Stanley Jr., G.D., Cairns, S.D., 1988. Constructional azooxanthellate coral communities: An overview with implications for the fossil record. Palaios 3, 233-242.
102. Stanley Jr., G.D., Fautin, D.G., 2001. The origins of modern corals. Science 291, 1913-1914.
103. Stanley, S.M., Hardie, L.A., 1999. Hypercalcification: Paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentolgy. GSA Today 9 (2), 1-7.
104. Stanley Jr., G.D., Swart, P.K., 1995. Evolution of the coral-zooxanthellae symbiosis during the Triassic: A geochemical approach. Paleobiology 21 (2), 179-199.
105. Stolarski, J., 1996. Gardineria-a scleractinian living fossil. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 41 (4), 339-367.
106. Stolarski, J., Roniewicz, E., 2001. Toward a synthesis of evolutionary relationships and classification of Scleractinia. Journal of Paleontology 75, 1090-1108.
107. Talent, J.A., 1988. Organic reef-building: Episodes of extinction and symbiosis? Senckenbergiana Lethaea 69, 315-368.
108. Teichert, C., 1958. Cold and deep-water coral banks. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 42, 1064-1082.
109. Trench, R.K., 1997. Diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates and the evolution of microalgal- invertebrate symbioses. Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, vol. 2, pp. 1275-1286.
110. Vermeij, G.J., 1977. The Mesozoic marine revolution: Evidence from snails, predators and grazers. Paleobiology 2, 245-258.
111. Veron, J.E.N., 1995. Corals in Space and Time: The Biogeography and Evolution of the Scleractinia. USNW Press, Sydney.
112. Veron, J.E.N., 2000. Corals of the World. Australian Institute of Marine Sciences, Townsville.
113. Veron, J.E.N., Odorico, D.M., Chen, C.A., Miller, D.J., 1996. Reassessing evolutionary relationships of scleractinian corals. Coral Reefs 15, 1-9.
114. Wells, J.W., 1933. Corals of the Cretaceous of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains and W-interior of the United States. Bulletins of American Paleontology 18 (67), 83-292.
115. Wells, J.W., 1956. Scleractinia. In: Moore, R.C. (Ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Geological Society of America and University Kansas Press, Lawrence, pp. 328-444.
116. Wendt, J., 1990. The first aragonitic rugose coral. Journal of Paleontology 64 (3), 335-340.
117. West, R.R., 1988. Temporal changes in Carboniferous reef mound communities. Palaios 3, 152-169.
118. Westbroek, P., Buddemeier, B., Coleman, M., Kok, D.J., Fautin, D., Stal, L., 1994. Strategies for the study of climatic forcing by calcification. In: Doumenge, F. (Ed.), Past and Present Biomineralization Processes: Considerations About the Carbonate Cycle. IUCN-COE Workshop. Monaco Muse' Oce'anographique, Monaco, pp. 119-131.
119. Wignall, P.B., Benton, M.J., 1999. Lazarus taxa and fossil abundance at times of biotic crisis. Journal of the Geological Society, London 156, 453-456.
120. Wignall, P.B., Hallam, A., 1992. Anoxia as a cause of the Permian/Triassic mass extinction: Facies evidence from northern Italy and the western United States. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 93, 21-46.
121. Wignall, P.B., Twitchett, R.J., 1996. Oceanic anoxia and the end Permian mass extinction. Science 272, 1155.
122. Wood, R.A., 1999. Reef Evolution. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.
123. Wray, G.A., Levinton, J.S., Shapiro, L.H., 1996. Molecular evidence for deep Precambrian divergences among metazoan phyla. Science 274, 568-573.