An overview of community pharmacist interventions: Assessing cost-effectiveness and patients' willingness to pay

Disease Management and Health Outcomes

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 95-110

  Li, Shu Chuen ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DRUG;

CLINICAL FEATURE; COMMUNITY CARE; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; COST CONTROL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; DRUG USE; ECONOMIC ASPECT; EVALUATION; HUMAN; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT SATISFACTION; PHARMACIST; QUALITY OF LIFE; REIMBURSEMENT; RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; REVIEW;

EID: 0037282361     PISSN: 11738790     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00115677-200311020-00004     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. Higby GJ. Evolution of pharmacy in Remington's pharmaceutical sciences. In: Gennaro AR, editor. Remington: the science and practice of pharmacy. 18th ed. Easton (PA): Mack Publishing Company, 1990: 8-19
2. Schneider JK, Nickman NA. Assessment of pharmaceutical care needs in an ambulatory setting. Hosp Pharm 1994; 29: 238-42
3. Higby GJ. From compounding to caring: an abridged history of American pharmacy. In: Knowlton CH, Penna RP, editors. Pharmaceutical care. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996: 18-54
4. Angaran DM, Bonal J, Eide G, et al. Clinical pharmacy: looking 20 years back. looking 20 years forward. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 235S-42S
5. Christensen DB, Campbell WH, Madsen S, et al. Documenting outpatient problem intervention activities of pharmacists in an HMO. Med Care 1981; 19: 104-17
6. Bond CA, Monson R. Sustained improvement in drug documentation, compliance, and disease control: a four-year analysis of an ambulatory care model. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144: 1159-62
7. Hammarlund ER, Ostrom JR, Kethley AJ. The effects of drug counseling and other educational strategies on drug utilization of the elderly. Med Care 1985; 23: 165-70
8. Ires TJ, Frey JJ, Furr SJ, et al. Effect of an educational intervention on oral cephalosporin use in primary care. Arch Intern Med 1987; 147: 44-7
9. Forstrom MJ, Ried LD, Stergachis AS, et al. Effect of a clinical pharmacist program on the cost of hypertension treatment in an HMO family practice clinic. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1990; 24: 304-9
10. Ibrahim OM, Catania PN, Mergener MA, et al. Outcome of cholesterol screening in a community pharmacy. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1990; 24: 817-21
11. Sidel VW, Beizer JL, Lisi-Fazio D, et al. Controlled study of the impact of educational home visits by pharmacists to high-risk older patients. J Community Health 1990; 15: 163-74
12. Knoell KR, Leeds AL. Influenza vaccination program for elderly outpatients. Am J Hosp Pharm 1991; 48: 256-9
13. Rupp MT. Value of community pharmacists' interventions to correct prescribing errors. Ann Pharmacother 1992; 26: 1580-4
14. Hartlaub PP, Barrett PH, Marine WM, et al. Evaluation of an intervention to change benzodiazepine-prescribing behavior in a prepaid group practice setting. Am J Prev Med 1993; 9: 346-52
15. Hunter KA, Bryant BG. Pharmacist provided education and counseling for managing pediatric asthma. Patient Educ Couns 1994; 24: 127-34
16. De Santis G, Harvey KJ, Howard D, et al. Improving the quality of antibiotic prescription patterns in general practice: the role of educational intervention. Med J Aust 1994; 160: 502-5
17. Yeo GT, de Burgh SP, Letton T, et al. Educational visiting and hypnosedative prescribing in general practice. Fam Pract 1994; 11: 57-61
18. Diwan VK, Wahlstrom R, Tomson G, et al. Effects of 'group detailing' on the prescribing of lipid-lowering drugs: a randomized controlled trial in Swedish primary care. J Clin Epidemiol 1995; 48: 705-11
19. Ferguson RI, Salmond CE, Maling TJ. The Nelson Prescribing Project: a programmed intervention in general practice in New Zealand. Pharmacoeconomics 1995; 7: 555-61
20. Johnson KA, Nye M, Hill-Besinque K, et al. Measuring of impact of patient counseling in the outpatient pharmacy setting: development and implementation of the counseling models for the Kaiser Permanente/USC Patient Consultation Study. Clin Ther 1995; 17: 988-1002
21. Hanlon JT, Weinberger M, Samsa GP, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of a clinical pharmacist intervention to improve inappropriate prescribing in elderly outpatients with polypharmacy. Am J Med 1996; 100: 428-37
22. Jaber LA, Halapy H, Fernet M, et al. Evaluation of a pharmaceutical care model on diabetes management. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 238-43
23. Anon. Pharmacist intervention in depression is focus of $3 million research grant [news]. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1997; 54: 2668
24. Munroe WP, Kunz K, Dalmady-Israel C, et al. Economic evaluation of pharmacist involvement in disease management in a community pharmacy setting. Clin Ther 1997; 19: 113-23
25. Shibley MC, Pugh CB. Implementation of pharmaceutical care services for patients with hyperlipidemias by independent community pharmacy practitioners. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31: 713-9
26. Crealey GE, McElnay JC, Maguire TA, et al. Costs and effects associated with a community pharmacy-based smoking-cessation programme. Pharmacoeconomics 1998; 14: 323-33
27. Read RW, Krska J. Targeted medication review: patients in the community with chronic pain. Int J Pharm Pract 1998; 6: 216-22
28. Mayer JA, Slymen DJ, Eckhardt L, et al. Skin cancer prevention counseling by pharmacists: specific outcomes of an intervention trial. Cancer Detect Prev 1998; 22: 367-75
29. Berringer R, Shibley MC, Cary CC, et al. Outcomes of a community pharmacy-based diabetes monitoring program. J Am Pharm Assoc 1999; 39: 791-7
30. Freemantle N, Eccles M, Wood J, et al. A randomized trial of Evidence-based OutReach (EBOR): rationale and design. Control Clin Trials 1999; 20: 479-92
31. Hawksworth GM, Corlett AJ, Wright DJ, et al. Clinical pharmacy interventions by community pharmacists during the dispensing process. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 47: 695-700
32. Lundborg CS, Wahlstrom R, Diwan VK, et al. Combining feedback from simulated cases and prescribing: design and implementation of an educational intervention in primary care in Sweden. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 1999; 15: 458-72
33. Rodgers S, Avery AJ, Meechan D, et al. Controlled trial of pharmacist intervention in general practice: the effect on prescribing costs. Br J Gen Pract 1999; 49: 717-20
34. Tsuyuki RT, Johnson JA, Teo KK, et al. Study of Cardiovascular Risk Intervention by Pharmacists (SCRIP): a randomized trial design of the effect of a community pharmacist intervention program on serum cholesterol risk. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33: 910-9
35. Blakey SA, Hixson-Wallace JA. Clinical and economic effects of pharmacy services in geriatric ambulatory clinic. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 1198-203
36. Mehos BM, Saseen JJ, MacLaughlin EJ. Effect of pharmacist intervention and initiation of home blood pressure monitoring in patients with uncontrolled hypertension. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 1384-9
37. Narhi U, Airaksinen M, Tanskanen P, et al. Therapeutic outcomes monitoring by community pharmacists for improving clinical outcomes in asthma. J Clin Pharm Ther 2000; 25: 177-83
38. Nola KM, Gourley DR, Portner TS, et al. Clinical and humanistic outcomes of a lipid management program in the community pharmacy setting. J Am Pharm Assoc 2000; 40: 166-73
39. Triller DM, Hamilton RA, Briceland LL, et al. Home care pharmacy: extending clinical pharmacy services beyond infusion therapy. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000; 57: 1326-31
40. Williams DM, Newsom JF, Brock TP. An evaluation of smoking cessation-related activities by pharmacists. J Am Pharm Assoc 2000; 40: 366-70
41. Allard J, Hebert R, Rioux M, et al. Efficacy of a clinical medication review on the number of potentially inappropriate prescriptions prescribed for community-dwelling elderly people. CMAJ 2001; 164: 1291-6
42. Krska J, Cromarty JA, Arris F, et al. Pharmacist-led medication review in patients over 65: a randomized, controlled trial in primary care. Age Ageing 2001; 30: 205-11
43. MacFadyen L, Eadie D, McGowan T. Community pharmacists' experience of over-the-counter medicine misuse in Scotland. J R Soc Health 2001; 121: 185-92
44. Simpson SH, Johnson JA, Tsuyuki RT. Economic impact of community pharmacist intervention in cholesterol risk management: an evaluation of the study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21: 627-35
45. Van Amburgh JA, Waite NM, Hobson EH, et al. Improved influenza vaccination rates in a rural population as a result of a pharmacist-managed immunization campaign. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21: 1115-22
46. Zermansky AG, Petty DR, Raynor DK, et al. Randomised controlled trial of clinical medication review by a pharmacist of elderly patients receiving repeat prescriptions in general practice. BMJ 2001; 323: 1340-3
47. Benrimoj SI, Langford JH, et al. Economic impact of increased clinical intervention rates in community pharmacy: a randomised trial of the effect of education and a professional allowance. Pharmacoeconomics 2000; 18: 459-68
48. Nau DP, Ponte CD. Effects of a commmunity pharmacist-based diabetes patient-management program on intermiate clinical outcome measures. J Managed Care Pharm 2002; 8: 48-53
49. Strand LM, Guerrero RM, Nickman NA, et al. Integrated patient-specific model of pharmacy practice. Am J Hosp Pharm 1990; 47: 550-4
50. Smith MC. Pharmacy education? J Am Pharm Assoc 1970; NS10: 548-51
51. Summers KH. The 'rebirth' of cognitive services. In: Smith MC, Wertheimer AI, editors. Social and behavioral aspects of pharmaceutical care. Binghamton (NY): Haworth Press, 1996: 675-714
52. Van Mil JWF. Pharmaceutical care [PhD dissertation]. Rijksuniveriteit Groningen, 1998
53. Mikael RL, Brown TR, Lazarus HL, et al. Quality of pharmaceutical care in hospitals. Am J Hosp Pharm 1975; 32: 567-74
54. Hepler CD, Strand LM. Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care. Am J Hosp Pharm 1990; 47: 533-43
55. Hepler CD. The future of pharmacy: pharmaceutical care. Am Pharm 1990; 10: 23-9
56. American Society of Hospital Pharmacists. ASHP statement on pharmaceutical care. Am J Hosp Pharm 1993; 50: 1720-3
57. Pharmaceutical Society of Australia. Position paper on pharmaceutical care. Deakin (VIC): Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, 1997 Oct
58. International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP). FIP statement of professional standards 1998 [online]. Available from URL: http://www.exist.nl/pdf/pharmcare.pdf [Accessed 2002 Feb 14]
59. Getting Research into Pharmacy Practice Working Group. Medicines, pharmacy and the NHS: getting it right for patients and prescribers - setting the clinical effectiveness agenda for pharmacy [summary paper]. London: Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 1999 Jul
60. American Pharmaceutical Association. Pharmaceutical care: principles and practices. Available from URL: http://www.aphanet.org/pharmcare/prinprac.html [Accessed 2002 Feb 14]
61. Plumridge RJ. Drug interactions: incidence in Victoria [letter]. Med J Aust 1982 May 1; 1: 371
62. Beller SA, Evans ER. Drug therapy in the elderly: effects on mental status. Am Fam Physician 1987; 36: 149-52
63. Chrischilles EA, Foley DJ, Wallace RB, et al. Use of medications by persons 65 and over: data from the established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Gerontol 1992; 47: M137-44
64. Leibovici MM. Patient management and use of medication in long-term care. Health Care Manag 1997; 3: 77-86
65. Hohl CM, Dankoff J, Colacone A, et al. Polypharmacy, adverse drug-related events, and potential adverse drug interactions in elderly patients presenting to an emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 38: 666-71
66. Malhotra S, Karan RS, Pandhi P, et al. Drag related medical emergencies in the elderly: role of adverse drug reactions and non-compliance. Postgrad Med J 2001; 77: 703-7
67. Sarlov C, Andersen-Karlsson E, von Bahr C. Adverse effects of drugs in patients with heart disease lead to hospital care. Lakartidningen 2001; 98: 5349-53
68. Hanlon JT, Fillenbaum GG, Kuchibhatla M, et al. Impact of inappropriate drug use on mortality and functional status in representative community dwelling elders. Med Care 2002; 40: 166-76
69. McMillan DA, Harrison PM, Rogers LJ, et al. Polypharmacy in an Australian teaching hospital: preliminary analysis of prevalence, types of drugs and associations. Med J Aust 1986; 145: 339-42
70. Beers MH, Ouslander JG, Fingold SF, et al. Inappropriate medication prescribing in skilled-nursing facilities. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 684-9
71. Beers MH, Fingold SF, Ouslander JG, et al. Characteristics and quality of prescribing by doctors practicing in nursing homes. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 802-7
72. Wilcox SM, Himmelstein DU, Woolhandler S. Inappropriate drug prescribing for the community-dwelling elderly. JAMA 1994; 272: 292-6
73. Gupta S, Rappaport HM, Bennett LT. Polypharmacy among nursing home geriatric Medicaid recipients. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 946-50
74. Aparasu RR, Fliginger SE. Inappropriate medication prescribing for the elderly by office-based physicians. Ann Pharmacother 1997; 31: 823-9
75. Dyer CC, Oles KS, Davis SW. The role of the pharmacist in a geriatric nursing home: a literature review. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1984; 18: 428-33
76. Grymonpre RE, Mitenko PA, Sitar DS, et al. Drug associated hospital admission in older medical patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 1092-8
77. Colt HG, Shapiro AP, Drug-induced illness as a cause for admission to a community hospital. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989; 37: 323-6
78. Ruiz JG, Array S, Lowenthal DT. Avoiding overmedication of elderly patients. Am J Ther 1996; 3: 784-8
79. Monane M, Avorn J. Medications and falls: causation, correlation, and prevention. Clin Geriatr Med 1996; 12: 847-58
80. Gerdtham U-G, Johannesson M, Jönsson B. Drug costs and new drug introductions: the Swedish experience. Pharmacoeconomics 1993; 4: 215-25
81. Card G. TV, drugs, and health care: evaluating and combating the influence of direct-to-consumer advertising on the prescription drug market. Harvard Health Pol Rev 2001; 2: 77-86
82. Sloan C. A history of the pharmaceutical benefits scheme: 1947-1992. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Services, 1995
83. Anon. Medicare fact sheet 10: the pharmaceutical benefits scheme (PBS). New Doctor 2001 Winter; 75: 18-20
84. Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI). Spending on drugs outpaces other health care spending: drug expenditures in Canada 1985-2000 [media release] 2001 Mar 14
85. Anon. Managed pharmacy benefits: rising drug costs. MPB Script Talk 2000 Winter; 2: 3
86. Williamson J, Chopin JM. Adverse reactions to prescribed drugs in the elderly: a multicentre investigation. Age Ageing 1980; 9: 73-80
87. Inman WH. Under-reporting of adverse drug reactions [letter]. BMJ 1985; 290: 1355
88. Nolan L, O'Malley K. Prescribing for the elderly: part 1. sensitivity of the elderly to adverse drug reactions. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 142-9
89. Hoigné R, Lawson DH, Weber E. Risk factors for adverse drug reactions: epidemiological approaches. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 39: 321-5
90. Karch FE, Lasagna L. Adverse drug reactions: a critical review. JAMA 1975; 234: 1236-41
91. World Health Organization. Requirements for adverse drug reaction reporting. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1975
92. Hershey LA. Avoiding adverse drug reactions in the elderly. Mt Sinai J Med 1988; 55: 244-50
93. DeSwarte RD. Drug allergies: problems and strategies. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1984; 74: 209-24
94. American Society of Hospital Pharmacists. ASHP guidelines on adverse drug reaction monitoring and reporting. Am J Hosp Pharm 1989; 36: 336-7
95. Ioannides-Demos LL, Eckert GM, McLean AJ. Pharmacoeconomic consequences of measurement and modification of hospital drug use. Pharmacoeconomics 1992; 2: 15-33
96. Prince BS, Goetz CM, Rihn TL, et al. Drug-related emergency department visits and hospital admissions. Am J Hosp Pharm 1992; 49: 1696-700
97. Nelson KM, Talbert RL. Drug-related hospital admissions. Pharmacotherapy 1996; 16: 701-7
98. Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 1998; 279: 1200-6
99. Brennan TA, Leape LL, Laird NM, et al. Incidence of adverse events and negligence in hospitalized patients: results of the Harvard Medical Practice Study 1. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 370-6
100. Classen DC, Pestotnik SL, Evans RS, et al. Computerized surveillance of adverse drug reactions in hospital patients. JAMA 1991: 266: 2847-51
101. Leape LL, Brennan TA, Laird N, et al. The nature of adverse events in hospitalized patients: results of the Harvard Medical Practice Study II. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 337-84
102. Azaz-Livshits T, Levy M, Sadan B, et al. Computerized surveillance of adverse drug reactions in hospital: pilot study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 45: 309-14
103. Stanaszek WF, Franklin CE. Survey of potential drug interaction incidence in an outpatient clinic population. Hosp Pharm 1978; 13: 255-63
104. Schneider JK, Mion LC, Frengley JD. Adverse drug reaction in an elderly outpatient population. Am J Hosp Pharm 1992; 49: 90-6
105. Schneider PJ, Gift MG, Lee YP, et al. Cost of medication-related problem at a university hospital. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1995; 52: 2415-8
106. Dartnell JG, Anderson RP, Chohan V, et al. Hospitalisation for adverse events related to drug therapy: incidence, avoidability and costs. Med J Aust 1996; 164: 659-62
107. Dennehy CE, Kishi DT, Louie C. Drug-related illness in emergency department patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1996; 53: 1422-6
108. Lapeyre-Mestre M, Gary J, Machelard-Roumagnac M, et al. Incidence and cost of adverse drug reactions in a French cancer institute. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 53: 19-22
109. Schliener RG, Oh PI, Knowles SR. et al. Quantifying the costs of serious drug reactions to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 1998; 39 Suppl. 7: S27-32
110. Lagnaoui RI, Moore N, Fach J, et al. Adverse drug reactions in a department of systematic disease-orientated internal medicine: prevalence, incidence, direct cost and affordability. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 56: 181-6
111. Sub DC, Woodal BS, Shin SK, et al. Clinical and economic impact of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 1373-9
112. Schumock GT. Methods to assess the economic outcomes of clinical pharmacy services. Pharmacotherapy 2000; 20: 243S-52S
113. Hurley SF, McNeil JJ, Jolley DJ, et al. Linking prescription and patient-identifying data: a pilot study. Med J Aust 1992; 156: 383-6
114. Scheitel SM, Fleming KC, Chutka DS, et al. Geriatric health maintenance. Mayo Clin Proc 1996; 71: 289-302
115. Stern A. Disease management: modeling the future of health care. Healthplan 2001; 42: 14-8
116. Maine LL, Penna RP. Pharmaceutical care: an overview. In: Knowlton CH, Penna RP, editors. Pharmaceutical care. New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996: 133-54
117. Bodenheimer T. Disease management: promises and pitfalls. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 1202-5
118. Hunter DJ, Fairfield G. Disease management. BMJ 1997; 315: 50-3
119. Boston Consulting Group. The promise of disease management. Boston (MA): The Boston Consulting Group Inc, 1995
120. Ellrodt G, Cook DJ, Lee J, et al. Evidence-based disease management. JAMA 1997; 278: 1687-92
121. Gihnour P, Hunt RA. Total quality management: integrating quality into design. operations and strategy. Cheshire: Longman, 1995
122. Cordina M, McElnay JC, Hughes CM. Assessment of a community-based program for patients with asthma. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21: 1196-203
123. Okamoto MP, Nakahiro RK. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of a pharmacist-managed hypertension clinic. Pharmacotherapy 2001; 21: 1337-44
124. Needham DS, Wong IC, Campion PD, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness of UK community pharmacists' interventions in community palliative care. Palliat Med 2002; 16 (3): 219-25
125. Bernsten C, Bjorkman I, Caramona M, et al. Improving the well-being of elderly patients via community pharmacy-based provision of pharmaceutical care: a multicentre study of seven European countries. Drugs Aging 2001; 18 (1): 63-77
126. Pickard AS, Johnson JA, Faris KB. The impact of pharmacist interventions on health-related quality of life. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33 (11): 1167-72
127. Novartis. Pharmacy benefit report. East Hanover (NJ): Novartis, 1997
128. Anon. Reimbursement for pharmacy services: a rock and a hard place. Trends 2001: The Pharmacy Report. Toronto (ONT): Rogers Media-Healthcare & Financial Publishing
129. Commonwealth of Australia. Health and medical research strategic review: case study. Canberra (ACT): Department of Health and Aged Care, Australian Government Publishing Services, 1988 Dec 4
130. van Mil JWF, De Boer WO, Tromp ThFJ. European barriers to the implementation of pharmaceutical care. Int J Pharm Pract 2001; 9: 163-8
131. Joint International Forum. World-wide developments in pharmaceutical care. Pharm J 1998; 260: 563-8
132. Antipodean review of developments: Third International Symposium on Pharmaceutical Care [editorial]. Pharm J 2000; 264; 7100: 884-7
133. Carroll NV. Consumer demand for patient orientated services in community pharmacies: a review and comment. J Soc Admin Pharm 1985; 3: 64-9
134. Carroll NV, Perri III M, Eve EE, et al. Estimating demand for health information: pharmacy counselling services. J Health Care Market 1987; 7: 33-40
135. Robinson B. Cardiac risk screening gets Florida pharmacy test [news]. Drug Top 1988; 132: 12
136. Meade V. Conducting at-home medication reviews. Am Pharm 1992; NS32: 37-9
137. Suh D. Consumers' willingness to pay for pharmacy services that reduce risk of medication-related problems. J Am Pharm Assoc 2000; 40: 818-27
138. Larson RA. Patients' willingness to pay for pharmaceutical care. J Am Pharm Assoc 2000; 40 (5): 618-24
139. Li SC, Chan SY, How PPC. A preliminary study of provision of pharmaceutical care in community pharmacy in Singapore: cost analysis and patient's willingness to pay. Value Health 2000; 3: 116
140. Broeseker A, Janke KK. The evolution and revolution of pharmaceutical care. In: McCarthy RL, editor. Introduction to health care delivery: a primer for pharmacists. Gaithersburg (MD): Aspen Publishers Inc, 1998: 393-416
141. Penna RP. Pharmaceutical care: pharmacy's mission for the 1990s. Am J Hosp Pharm 1990; 47: 543-9
142. Barner JC, Bennett RW. Pharmaceutical care certificate program: assessment of pharmacists' implementation into practice. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 1999 May-Jun; 39 (3): 362-7
143. Miller MJ, Ortmeier BG. Factors influencing the delivery of pharmacy services. Am Pharm 1995 Jan; NS35 (1): 39-45
144. Cordina M, McElnay JC, Hughes CM. The importance that pharmacists in Malta place on the introduction of pharmaceutical care. Pharm World Sci 1999; 21: 69-73
145. Erickson SR, Landino HM, Zarowitz BJ, et al. Pharmacists' understanding of patient education on metered-dose inhaler technique. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34 (11): 1249-56
146. Norwood GJ, Sleath BL, Caiola SM, et al. Costs of implementing pharmaceutical care in community pharmacies. J Am Pharm Assoc 1998; 38: 755-61
147. Albro W. How to communicate with physicians. Am Pharm 1993; NS33: 59-61
148. Butenya GB, Lauwo JAK. Communication about dispensed drugs between prescriber, the dispenser and the patient: a study from Port Moresby General Hospital. Aust J Hosp Pharm 1993; 23: 182-5
149. Smith WE, Ray MD, Shannon DM. Physicians' expectations of pharmacists. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2002; 59: 50-7
150. Hynniman CE, Lamy PP. Physicians view the pharmacist. J Am Pharm Assoc 1971; NS11: 158-63, 180
151. Williamson RE, Kabat HF. Pharmacist/physician drug communications. J Am Pharm Assoc 1971; NS11: 164-7
152. How PPC. Evaluation of pharmaceutical care services provided by community pharmacists in Singapore [Honours dissertation]. National University of Singapore, 1999
153. Amsler MR, Murray MD, Tierney WM, et al. Pharmaceutical care in chain pharmacies: beliefs and attitudes of pharmacists and patients. J Am Pharm Assoc 2001; 41: 850-5
154. Quintrell N. Communication skills: a manual for pharmacists. Canberra: Pharmaceutical Society of Australia, 1982
155. Poulton BC, West MA. Effective multidisciplinary teamwork in primary health care. J Adv Nurs 1993; 18: 918-25
156. Clemmer TP, Spuhler VJ, Berwick DM, et al. Cooperation: the foundation of improvement. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 1004-9
157. McDonough RP, Doucette WR. Dynamics of pharmaceutical care: developing collaborative working relationships between pharmacists and physicians. J Am Pharm Assoc 2001; 41: 682-92
158. Meade V. Helping pharmacists provide disease-based pharmaceutical care. Am Pharm 1995; 35: 45-8
159. Cipolle RJ, Strand LM, Morley PC. Pharmaceutical care practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Co Inc, 1998