Towards tolerance: Representations of superordinate categories and perceived ingroup prototypicality

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 31-47

  Waldzus, Sven ^b   Mummendey, Amélie ^b   Wenzel, Michael ^a   Weber, Ulrike ^b  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b FRIEDRICH SCHILLER UNIVERSITY JENA   (Germany)

Author keywords

Complexity; Intergroup relations; Projection; Relative prototypicality; Social identity; Superordinate categories

Indexed keywords

EID: 0037279468     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00507-3     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Allport, F. H. (1924). Social psychology. Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press.
2. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
3. Berry, J. W. (1984). Multicultural policy in Canada: A social psychological analysis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 16, 353-370.
4. Brewer, M. B., & Harasty, A. S. (1996). Seeing groups as entities: The role of perceiver motivation. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition, Vol. 3: The interpersonal context (pp. 347-370). New York: Guilford Press.
5. Brewer, M. B., & Miller, N. (1984). Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation (pp. 281-302). New York: Academic Press.
6. Brown, R., Vivian, J., & Hewstone, M. (1999). Changing attitudes through intergroup contact: The effects of group membership salience. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 741-764.
7. Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123-152.
8. Clement, R. W., & Krueger, J. (2000). The primacy of self-referent information in perceptions of social consensus. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 279-299.
9. Coats, S., Smith, E. R., Claypool, H. M., & Banner, M. J. (2000). Overlapping mental representations of self and in-group: Reaction time evidence and its relationship with explicit measures of group identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 304-315.
10. Deschamps, J. C., & Doise, W. (1978). Crossed category memberships in intergroup relations. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups (pp. 141-158). London: Academic Press.
11. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Validzic, A. (1998). Intergroup bias: Status, differentiation, and a common in-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 109-120.
12. Eggins, R. A. (1999). Social identity and social conflict: Negotiating the path to resolution. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
13. Ellemers, N., Van Rijswijk, W., Roefs, M., & Simons, C. (1997). Bias in intergroup perceptions: Balancing group identity with social reality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 186-198.
14. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
15. Freud, A. (1936/1958). Das Ich und die Abwehrmechanismen (The ego and the mechanisms of defense). London: Imago Publishing (Original work published 1936).
16. Freud, S. (1917/1999). Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis). In A. Freud (Ed.), Gesammelte WerkelSigmund Freud (Vol. 11). London: Imago Publishing (Original work published 1917).
17. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1993). The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1-26). Chichester, England, UK: Wiley.
18. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Nier, J. A., Ward, C. M., & Banker, B. S. (1999). Across cultural divides: The value of a superordinate identity. In D. A. Prentice & D. T. Miller (Eds.), Cultural divides: Understanding and overcoming group conflict (pp. 173-212). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
19. Gerard, H. B., & Orive, R. (1987). The dynamics of opinion formation. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 171-202). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
20. Gonzales, R., & Brown, R. J. (1999). Reducing intergroup conflict by varying the salience of subgroup and superordinate group identifications. Paper presented at the 12th general meeting of the European association of experimental social psychology, Oxford, July 6-11, 1999.
21. Hains, S. C., Hogg, M. A., & Duck, J. M. (1997). Self-categorization and leadership: Effects of group prototypicality and leader stereotypicality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1087-1099.
22. Haslam, S. A. (2001). The psychology of organizations: A social identity perspective. London: Sage.
23. Haslam, S. A., Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., McGarty, C., & Reynolds, K. J. (1998). The group as a basis for emergent stereotype consensus. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 203-239). Wiley, England, UK: Chichester.
24. Haunschild, P. R., Moreland, R. L., & Murrell, A. J. (1994). Sources of resistance to mergers between groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 1150-1178.
25. Hewstone, M., & Brown, R. (1986). Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the 'contact hypothesis'. In M. Hewstone & R. Brown (Eds.), Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (pp. 1-44). Oxford, England, UK: Basil Blackwell.
26. Hogg, M. A. (1993). Group cohesiveness: A critical review and some new directions. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 85-111). Chichester, England, UK: Wiley.
27. Hogg, M. A., Cooper-Shaw, L., & Holzworth, D. W. (1993). Group prototypicality and depersonalized attraction in small interactive groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 452-465.
28. Holmes, D. S. (1978). Projection as a defense mechanism. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 677-688.
29. Holmes, D. S. (1981). Existence of classical projection and the stress-reducing function of attributive projection: A reply to Sherwood. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 460-466.
30. Holmes, D. S., & Houston, B. K. (1971). The defensive function of projection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 20, 208-213.
31. Holyoak, K. J., & Gordon, P. C. (1983). Social reference points. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 881-887.
32. Hornsey, M. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1999). Subgroup differentiation as a response to an overly-inclusive group: A test of optimal distinctiveness theory. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 543-550.
33. Huo, Y. J., Smith, H. J., Tyler, T. R., & Lind, E. A. (1996). Superordinate identification, subgroup identification, and justice concerns: Is separatism the problem; is assimilation the answer. Psychological Science, 7, 40-45.
34. Jetten, J., Spears, R., Hogg, M., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2000). Discrimination constrained and justified: Variable effects of group variability and in-group identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 329-356.
35. Jetten, J., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. S. (1998). Defining dimensions of distinctiveness: Group variability makes a difference to differentiation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1481-1492.
36. Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolger, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & L. Gardner (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, (4th ed., pp. 233-265). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
37. Kirk, R. E. (1982). Experimental design: Procedures for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
38. LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L., & Gerton, J. (1993). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 395-412.
39. Lickel, B., Hamilton, D. L., Wieczorkowska, G., Lewis, A., Sherman, S. J., & Uhles, A. N. (2000). Varieties of groups and the perception of group entitativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 223-246.
40. Linville, P. W., & Fischer, G. W. (1993). Exemplar and abstraction models of perceived group variability and stereotypicality. Social Cognition, 11, 92-125.
41. Marks, G., & Miller, N. (1985). The effect of certainty on consensus judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 11, 165-177.
42. Markus, H., Smith, J., & Moreland, R. L. (1985). Role of the self-concept in the perception of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1494-1512.
43. McGarty, C., Haslam, S. A., Hutchinson, K. J., & Grace, D. M. (1995). Determinants of perceived consistency: The relationship between group entitativity and the meaningfulness of categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 237-256.
44. Migdal, M. J., Hewstone, M., & Mullen, B. (1998). The effects of crossed categorization on intergroup evaluations: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 303-324.
45. Miller, N., Gross, S., & Holtz, R. (1991). Social projection and attitudinal certainty. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 177-209). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
46. Moreland, R. L., & McMinn, J. G. (1999). Gone but not forgotten: Loyalty and betrayal among ex-members of small groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1476-1486.
47. Mullen, B., Dovidio, J. F., Johnson, C., & Copper, C. (1992). In-group-out-group differences in social projection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 422-440.
48. Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1999). Social discrimination and tolerance in intergroup relations: Reactions to intergroup difference. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 158-174.
49. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford, England, UK: Blackwell.
50. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1998). The role of prototypicality in group influence and cohesion: Contextual variation in the graded structure of social categories. In S. Worchel & J. F. Morales (Eds.), Social identity: International perspectives (pp. 75-92). London, England, UK: Sage.
51. Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Carey, S. R. (1991). Social categorization and the representation of variability information. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 211-245). Chichester: Wiley.
52. Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. (1989). Definition and interpretation of interaction effects. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 143-146.
53. Rosnow, R. L., & Rosenthal, R. (1991). If you're looking at the cell means, you're not looking at only the interaction (unless all main effects are zero). Psychological Bulletin, 110, 574-576.
54. Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The false consensus effect: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279-301.
55. Ryan, C. S., Bogart, L. M., & Vender, J. P. (2000). Effects of perceived group variability on the gathering of information about individual group members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 90-101.
56. Sani, F., & Reicher, S. (2000). Contested identities and schisms in groups: Opposing the ordination of women as priests in the Church of England. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 95-112.
57. Schiffenbauer, A. (1974). Effect of observer's emotional state on judgments of the emotional state of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 31-35.
58. Schofield, J. W. (1986). Causes and consequences of the colorblind perspective. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 231-253). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
59. Sherwood, G. G. (1981). Self-serving biases in person perception: A reexamination of projection as a mechanism of defense. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 445-459.
60. Smith, E. R., Coats, S., & Walling, D. (1999). Overlapping mental representations of self, in-group, and partner: Further response time evidence and a connectionist model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 873-882.
61. Smith, E. R., & Henry, S. (1996). An in-group becomes part of the self: Response time evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 635-642.
62. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Montery, CA: Brooks-Cole.
63. Terry, D. J., & Callan, V. J. (1998). In-group bias in response to an organizational merger. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, Practice, 2, 67-81.
64. Turner, J. C. (1981). The experimental social psychology of intergroup behavior. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup behavior (pp. 66-101). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
65. Turner, J. C. (1987). A self-categorization theory. In J. C. Turner, M. Hogg, P. J. Oakes, S. D. Reicher, & M. S. Wetherell (Eds.), Rediscovering the social group (pp. 42-67). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
66. Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
67. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. New York, NY: Basil Blackwell.
68. Weber, U., Mummendey, A., & Waldzus, S. (2002). Perceived legitimacy of intergroup status differences: Its prediction by relative ingroup prototypicality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 449-470.
69. Wenzel, M. (2001). A social categorization approach to distributive justice: Social identity as the link between relevance of inputs and need for justice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 315-335.
70. Wenzel, M., Mummendey, A., Weber, U., & Waldzus, S. (in press). The ingroup as pars pro toto: Projection from the ingroup onto the inclusive category as a precursor to social discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.