Health care reform and social movements in the United States

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 93, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 75-85

  Hoffman, Beatrix ^a  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; HUMAN RIGHTS; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0037219184     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.93.1.75     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. On social movements and grassroots activism, see Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marco Guigni, Doug McAdam, and Charles Tilly, eds, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999): Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997).
2. On social movements and grassroots activism, see Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marco Guigni, Doug McAdam, and Charles Tilly, eds, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999): Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997).
3. On social movements and grassroots activism, see Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marco Guigni, Doug McAdam, and Charles Tilly, eds, How Social Movements Matter (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999): Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements (New York: Routledge, 1997).
4. From 1943 to 1965, opinion polls showed that "a relatively stable two-thirds majority of Americans" favored "some government role in the financing of personal health services"; Theodore Marmor, The Politics of Medicare (London: Routledge, 1970), 3. See also Lawrence Jacobs, The Health of Nations: Public Opinion and the Making of British and American Health Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Reuters, "Poll Finds Momentum for Radical Health Care Reform," August 26, 2002, available at: http://www.ada.org/prof/pubs/daily/0208/0826us.html. Accessed October 22, 2002.
5. From 1943 to 1965, opinion polls showed that "a relatively stable two-thirds majority of Americans" favored "some government role in the financing of personal health services"; Theodore Marmor, The Politics of Medicare (London: Routledge, 1970), 3. See also Lawrence Jacobs, The Health of Nations: Public Opinion and the Making of British and American Health Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Reuters, "Poll Finds Momentum for Radical Health Care Reform," August 26, 2002, available at: http://www.ada.org/prof/pubs/daily/0208/0826us.html. Accessed October 22, 2002.
6. From 1943 to 1965, opinion polls showed that "a relatively stable two-thirds majority of Americans" favored "some government role in the financing of personal health services"; Theodore Marmor, The Politics of Medicare (London: Routledge, 1970), 3. See also Lawrence Jacobs, The Health of Nations: Public Opinion and the Making of British and American Health Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993); Reuters, "Poll Finds Momentum for Radical Health Care Reform," August 26, 2002, available at: http://www.ada.org/prof/pubs/daily/0208/0826us.html. Accessed October 22, 2002.
7. Ronald Numbers, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Beatrix Hoffman, The Wages of Sickness: The Politics of Health Insurance in Progressive America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), chap 4.
8. Ronald Numbers, Almost Persuaded: American Physicians and Compulsory Health Insurance, 1912-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Beatrix Hoffman, The Wages of Sickness: The Politics of Health Insurance in Progressive America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), chap 4.
9. Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, chap 7 and 8.
10. Colin Gordon, Dead on Arrival: Health Care and the Limits of Social Provision in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, in press), 410; Jonathan Engel, Doctors and Reformers: Discussion and Debate Over Health Policy, 1925-1950 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), chap 2.
11. Colin Gordon, Dead on Arrival: Health Care and the Limits of Social Provision in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, in press), 410; Jonathan Engel, Doctors and Reformers: Discussion and Debate Over Health Policy, 1925-1950 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002), chap 2.
12. Edwin Amenta, Bold Relief: Institutional Politics and the Origins of Modern American Social Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 108-117; Alan Brinkley, Voice of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Random House, 1983).
13. Edwin Amenta, Bold Relief: Institutional Politics and the Origins of Modern American Social Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 108-117; Alan Brinkley, Voice of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York: Random House, 1983).
14. HR 2827, 74th Cong, 1st Sess, January 3, 1935. On the Farmer-Labor Party, see Richard M. Valelly, Radicalism in the States: The Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party and the American Political Economy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
15. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 22-24; Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Free Press, 1982), 269, 275-279. On New Deal health reformers, see also Engel, Doctors and Reformers, chap 3 and 4; Daniel S. Hirshfield, The Lost Reform: The Campaign for Compulsory Health Insurance in the United States From 1932 to 1943 (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1970).
16. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 22-24; Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Free Press, 1982), 269, 275-279. On New Deal health reformers, see also Engel, Doctors and Reformers, chap 3 and 4; Daniel S. Hirshfield, The Lost Reform: The Campaign for Compulsory Health Insurance in the United States From 1932 to 1943 (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1970).
17. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 22-24; Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Free Press, 1982), 269, 275-279. On New Deal health reformers, see also Engel, Doctors and Reformers, chap 3 and 4; Daniel S. Hirshfield, The Lost Reform: The Campaign for Compulsory Health Insurance in the United States From 1932 to 1943 (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1970).
18. Alan Derickson, "Health security for all? Social unionism and universal health insurance, 1935-1958,"Journal of American History 80 (1994): 1333-1356 (quotes from pp. 1342-1343); Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 413.
19. Alan Derickson, "Health security for all? Social unionism and universal health insurance, 1935-1958,"Journal of American History 80 (1994): 1333-1356 (quotes from pp. 1342-1343); Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 413.
20. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 339. See also Monte M. Poen, Harry S. Truman vs the Medical Lobby: The Genesis of Medicare (Columbia: University of Missouri Press. 1979).
21. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 339. See also Monte M. Poen, Harry S. Truman vs the Medical Lobby: The Genesis of Medicare (Columbia: University of Missouri Press. 1979).
22. Alan Derickson, "The house of falk: The paranoid style in American health politics," American Journal of Public Health 87 (1997): 1836-1844; Marmor, Politics of Medicare, 12-14.
23. Alan Derickson, "The house of falk: The paranoid style in American health politics," American Journal of Public Health 87 (1997): 1836-1844; Marmor, Politics of Medicare, 12-14.
24. Denckson, "Health Security for All?" 1355. On the postwar rise of employer health benefits, see Marie Gottschalk, "The elusive goal of universal health care in the US: Organized labor and the institutional straightjacket of the private welfare state," Journal of Policy History II, No. 4 (1999): 367-398; Jennifer Klein, "Managing Security: The Business of American Social Policy, 1910s-1960" (PhD diss, University of Virginia, 1999); Raymond Munts, Bargaining for Health: Labor Unions, Health Insurance, and Medical Care (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). On the Committee for National Health Insurance, see Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 382, 404.
25. Denckson, "Health Security for All?" 1355. On the postwar rise of employer health benefits, see Marie Gottschalk, "The elusive goal of universal health care in the US: Organized labor and the institutional straightjacket of the private welfare state," Journal of Policy History II, No. 4 (1999): 367-398; Jennifer Klein, "Managing Security: The Business of American Social Policy, 1910s-1960" (PhD diss, University of Virginia, 1999); Raymond Munts, Bargaining for Health: Labor Unions, Health Insurance, and Medical Care (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). On the Committee for National Health Insurance, see Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 382, 404.
26. Denckson, "Health Security for All?" 1355. On the postwar rise of employer health benefits, see Marie Gottschalk, "The elusive goal of universal health care in the US: Organized labor and the institutional straightjacket of the private welfare state," Journal of Policy History II, No. 4 (1999): 367-398; Jennifer Klein, "Managing Security: The Business of American Social Policy, 1910s-1960" (PhD diss, University of Virginia, 1999); Raymond Munts, Bargaining for Health: Labor Unions, Health Insurance, and Medical Care (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). On the Committee for National Health Insurance, see Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 382, 404.
27. Denckson, "Health Security for All?" 1355. On the postwar rise of employer health benefits, see Marie Gottschalk, "The elusive goal of universal health care in the US: Organized labor and the institutional straightjacket of the private welfare state," Journal of Policy History II, No. 4 (1999): 367-398; Jennifer Klein, "Managing Security: The Business of American Social Policy, 1910s-1960" (PhD diss, University of Virginia, 1999); Raymond Munts, Bargaining for Health: Labor Unions, Health Insurance, and Medical Care (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). On the Committee for National Health Insurance, see Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 382, 404.
28. Denckson, "Health Security for All?" 1355. On the postwar rise of employer health benefits, see Marie Gottschalk, "The elusive goal of universal health care in the US: Organized labor and the institutional straightjacket of the private welfare state," Journal of Policy History II, No. 4 (1999): 367-398; Jennifer Klein, "Managing Security: The Business of American Social Policy, 1910s-1960" (PhD diss, University of Virginia, 1999); Raymond Munts, Bargaining for Health: Labor Unions, Health Insurance, and Medical Care (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). On the Committee for National Health Insurance, see Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 382, 404.
29. Medicare was endorsed by the NAACP, the National Urban League, and the National Medical Association; Dona Cooper Hamilton and Charles V. Hamilton, The Dual Agenda: Race and Social Welfare Policies of Civil Rights Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 155-156. Accounts of civil rights support for Medicare do not discuss Medicaid as a separate program; more needs to be done to analyze the movement's position on Medicaid, which as a state-based program had very different implications for civil rights than did Medicare.
30. Jill Quadagno, "Culture as Politics in Action: How the 'Red Menace' Derailed National Health Insurance," paper presented to the Department of Sociology, New York University, February 21, 2001 (in the author's possession), 29, 32-33, 34-35, 39.
31. Marmor, Politics of Medicare, 28.
32. Bob Dreyfuss of Physicians for a National Health Plan, quoted in Judy Keen, "Health panel's job: 'Activate grass roots'," USA Today, March 30, 1993, 1A. On the Clinton Health Care Task Force, see Haynes Johnson and David S. Broder, The System: The American Way of Politics at the Breaking Point (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1996).
33. Bob Dreyfuss of Physicians for a National Health Plan, quoted in Judy Keen, "Health panel's job: 'Activate grass roots'," USA Today, March 30, 1993, 1A. On the Clinton Health Care Task Force, see Haynes Johnson and David S. Broder, The System: The American Way of Politics at the Breaking Point (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1996).
34. Quentin Young, MD, "Clinton health plan is no cure," Chicago Sun-Times, September 21, 1993, 26: Russell Beckley, MD, "To the editor," Los Angeles Times, November 5, 1993, B6.
35. Quentin Young, MD, "Clinton health plan is no cure," Chicago Sun-Times, September 21, 1993, 26: Russell Beckley, MD, "To the editor," Los Angeles Times, November 5, 1993, B6.
36. Steffie Woolhandler, MD, and David U. Himmelstein, MD, "Giant HMO 'A' or Giant HMO 'B'?" The Nation, September 19, 1994, 265-268.
37. Adrianne Appel, "An alternative to managed care," Christian Science Monitor, May 18, 1993, 2. The bill was known as Wellstone-McDermott for its congressional sponsors.
38. Marie Gottschalk, "The missing millions: Organized labor, business, and the defeat of the clinton health security act," Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law 24 (1999): 489-530.
39. Derickson, "Health Care for All?" 1343; Theda Skocpol, Boomerang: Health Care Reform and the Turn Against Government (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 92.
40. Derickson, "Health Care for All?" 1343; Theda Skocpol, Boomerang: Health Care Reform and the Turn Against Government (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), 92.
41. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 3-4, 432. On pluralism in health politics, see, for example, Daniel Fox, "The decline of historicism: The case of compulsory health insurance in the United States," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 57 (1983): 596-610.
42. Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 3-4, 432. On pluralism in health politics, see, for example, Daniel Fox, "The decline of historicism: The case of compulsory health insurance in the United States," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 57 (1983): 596-610.
43. Pauline Newman speech, American Journal of Nursing 17 (1917), 943; Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 120-123, 143-146; Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 182. While physician-run cooperatives and group practice played an important role in incremental health reform, they do not fit the definition of grassroots activism used in this article since they were initiated by providers rather than consumers. On medical cooperatives, see Michael Grey, New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), chap 2; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 302-306.
44. Pauline Newman speech, American Journal of Nursing 17 (1917), 943; Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 120-123, 143-146; Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 182. While physician-run cooperatives and group practice played an important role in incremental health reform, they do not fit the definition of grassroots activism used in this article since they were initiated by providers rather than consumers. On medical cooperatives, see Michael Grey, New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), chap 2; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 302-306.
45. Pauline Newman speech, American Journal of Nursing 17 (1917), 943; Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 120-123, 143-146; Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 182. While physician-run cooperatives and group practice played an important role in incremental health reform, they do not fit the definition of grassroots activism used in this article since they were initiated by providers rather than consumers. On medical cooperatives, see Michael Grey, New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), chap 2; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 302-306.
46. Pauline Newman speech, American Journal of Nursing 17 (1917), 943; Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 120-123, 143-146; Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 182. While physician-run cooperatives and group practice played an important role in incremental health reform, they do not fit the definition of grassroots activism used in this article since they were initiated by providers rather than consumers. On medical cooperatives, see Michael Grey, New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), chap 2; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 302-306.
47. Pauline Newman speech, American Journal of Nursing 17 (1917), 943; Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 120-123, 143-146; Alan Derickson, Workers' Health, Workers' Democracy: The Western Miners' Struggle, 1891-1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 182. While physician-run cooperatives and group practice played an important role in incremental health reform, they do not fit the definition of grassroots activism used in this article since they were initiated by providers rather than consumers. On medical cooperatives, see Michael Grey, New Deal Medicine: The Rural Health Programs of the Farm Security Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), chap 2; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 302-306.
48. Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 29-32; Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 275-283; David Barton Smith, Health Care Divided: Race and Healing a Nation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 29.
49. Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 29-32; Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 275-283; David Barton Smith, Health Care Divided: Race and Healing a Nation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 29.
50. Hoffman, Wages of Sickness, 29-32; Gordon, Dead on Arrival, 275-283; David Barton Smith, Health Care Divided: Race and Healing a Nation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 29.
51. David Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); M.S. Stuart, An Economic Detour: A History of Insurance in the Lives of American Negroes (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1969); Vanessa Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford, 1995); Susan Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
52. David Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); M.S. Stuart, An Economic Detour: A History of Insurance in the Lives of American Negroes (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1969); Vanessa Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford, 1995); Susan Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
53. David Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); M.S. Stuart, An Economic Detour: A History of Insurance in the Lives of American Negroes (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1969); Vanessa Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford, 1995); Susan Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
54. David Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890-1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); M.S. Stuart, An Economic Detour: A History of Insurance in the Lives of American Negroes (College Park: University of Maryland Press, 1969); Vanessa Gamble, Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, 1920-1945 (New York: Oxford, 1995); Susan Smith, Sick and Tired of Being Sick and Tired: Black Women's Health Activism in America, 1890-1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
55. Hamilton and Hamilton, The Dual Agenda, 73, 244-254. The quotation is from the NAACP's Walter White.
56. W. Montague Cobb, "What Purpose NMA?" August-September 1947, file drawer K-4, Michael Davis Papers, New York Academy of Medicine; Hamilton and Hamilton, The Dual Agenda, 77.
57. W. Montague Cobb, "What Purpose NMA?" August-September 1947, file drawer K-4, Michael Davis Papers, New York Academy of Medicine; Hamilton and Hamilton, The Dual Agenda, 77.
58. David McBride, From TB to AIDS: Epidemics Among Urban Blacks Since 1900 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1991), 154.
59. The cases demanding hospital compliance with federal uncompensated care requirements had limited success, most notably with Cook v Ochsner (61 FRD 354; 1972), but attempts to restrict "hospital flight" failed; Smith, Health Care Divided, 168-183. On hospital desegregation; see Smith, ibid, chap 3 and 4, and Jill Quadagno, "Promoting Civil Rights Through the Welfare State: How Medicare Integrated Southern Hospitals," Social Problems 47, No. 1 (2000): 68-89.
60. The cases demanding hospital compliance with federal uncompensated care requirements had limited success, most notably with Cook v Ochsner (61 FRD 354; 1972), but attempts to restrict "hospital flight" failed; Smith, Health Care Divided, 168-183. On hospital desegregation; see Smith, ibid, chap 3 and 4, and Jill Quadagno, "Promoting Civil Rights Through the Welfare State: How Medicare Integrated Southern Hospitals," Social Problems 47, No. 1 (2000): 68-89.
61. The cases demanding hospital compliance with federal uncompensated care requirements had limited success, most notably with Cook v Ochsner (61 FRD 354; 1972), but attempts to restrict "hospital flight" failed; Smith, Health Care Divided, 168-183. On hospital desegregation; see Smith, ibid, chap 3 and 4, and Jill Quadagno, "Promoting Civil Rights Through the Welfare State: How Medicare Integrated Southern Hospitals," Social Problems 47, No. 1 (2000): 68-89.
62. The cases demanding hospital compliance with federal uncompensated care requirements had limited success, most notably with Cook v Ochsner (61 FRD 354; 1972), but attempts to restrict "hospital flight" failed; Smith, Health Care Divided, 168-183. On hospital desegregation; see Smith, ibid, chap 3 and 4, and Jill Quadagno, "Promoting Civil Rights Through the Welfare State: How Medicare Integrated Southern Hospitals," Social Problems 47, No. 1 (2000): 68-89.
63. "Visit to Syracuse Urban League Enrichment of Community Health Program," unknown author, Sept. 7, 1972, folder 6, box 67, Papers of the National Urban League, Library of Congress. On community health programs, see Alice Sardell, The US Experiment in Social Medicine: The Community Health Center Program, 1965-86 (Pittsburgh, Pa: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988).
64. "Visit to Syracuse Urban League Enrichment of Community Health Program," unknown author, Sept. 7, 1972, folder 6, box 67, Papers of the National Urban League, Library of Congress. On community health programs, see Alice Sardell, The US Experiment in Social Medicine: The Community Health Center Program, 1965-86 (Pittsburgh, Pa: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988).
65. Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), quoted in Major Problems in the History of American Medicine and Public Health, ed. John Harley Warner and Janet Tighe (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 501-504.
66. Boston Women's Health Book Collective, Our Bodies, Ourselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971), quoted in Major Problems in the History of American Medicine and Public Health, ed. John Harley Warner and Janet Tighe (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 501-504.
67. Ann Shola Orloff, Julia S. O'Connor, and Sheila Shaver, States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain and the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 182-183.
68. Jennifer A. Nelson, "'Abortions under community control': Feminism, nationalism, and the politics of reproduction among New York City's young lords," Journal of Women's History 13 (spring 2001): 157-180.
69. Anne S. Kasper, "Health Care Reform: A Women's Issue," July 2001, available at: http://www.ourbodiesourselves. org/reform.htm; Campaign for Women's Health, "A Model Benefits Package for Women in Health Care Reform," ca. 1992, in the author's possession (thanks to Anne Kasper for providing me with this document); Karen Nussbaum, "Why US Women Need the Clinton Health Reform Package Now," Albany (NY) Times-Union, June 1, 1994. However, reproductive rights supporters were unhappy that the Clinton plan failed to specifically mention abortion coverage; Sharon Lerner and Janet Freedman, MD, "Abortion and Health Care Reform," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 49 (1994): 144-146.
70. Anne S. Kasper, "Health Care Reform: A Women's Issue," July 2001, available at: http://www.ourbodiesourselves. org/reform.htm; Campaign for Women's Health, "A Model Benefits Package for Women in Health Care Reform," ca. 1992, in the author's possession (thanks to Anne Kasper for providing me with this document); Karen Nussbaum, "Why US Women Need the Clinton Health Reform Package Now," Albany (NY) Times-Union, June 1, 1994. However, reproductive rights supporters were unhappy that the Clinton plan failed to specifically mention abortion coverage; Sharon Lerner and Janet Freedman, MD, "Abortion and Health Care Reform," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 49 (1994): 144-146.
71. Anne S. Kasper, "Health Care Reform: A Women's Issue," July 2001, available at: http://www.ourbodiesourselves. org/reform.htm; Campaign for Women's Health, "A Model Benefits Package for Women in Health Care Reform," ca. 1992, in the author's possession (thanks to Anne Kasper for providing me with this document); Karen Nussbaum, "Why US Women Need the Clinton Health Reform Package Now," Albany (NY) Times-Union, June 1, 1994. However, reproductive rights supporters were unhappy that the Clinton plan failed to specifically mention abortion coverage; Sharon Lerner and Janet Freedman, MD, "Abortion and Health Care Reform," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 49 (1994): 144-146.
72. Anne S. Kasper, "Health Care Reform: A Women's Issue," July 2001, available at: http://www.ourbodiesourselves. org/reform.htm; Campaign for Women's Health, "A Model Benefits Package for Women in Health Care Reform," ca. 1992, in the author's possession (thanks to Anne Kasper for providing me with this document); Karen Nussbaum, "Why US Women Need the Clinton Health Reform Package Now," Albany (NY) Times-Union, June 1, 1994. However, reproductive rights supporters were unhappy that the Clinton plan failed to specifically mention abortion coverage; Sharon Lerner and Janet Freedman, MD, "Abortion and Health Care Reform," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 49 (1994): 144-146.
73. Steven Epstein, Impure Science: AIDS, Activism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
74. The records of the Insurance and Access Committee are in boxes 41-55, ACT UP-NY Papers, New York Public Library.
75. "People of Color AIDS Activist Conference," ca. 1990, folder 3, box 41; "Comments of the Insurance and Access Committee of ACT UP/NY," February 11, 1991, folder 3, box 41; Flyer, ca. 1991, folder 1, box 42, ACT UP-NY Papers.
76. ACT UP Healthcare Campaign Working Group, "Memo #1," ca. 1990, folder 1, box 42 (the Ryan White CARE Act, or Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency Act, was eventually funded, and reauthorized in 1996 and 2000); "Dear Comrade," April 16, 1991, folder 3, box 41; "A Call to Action," April 1993, folder 7, box 50, ACT UP-NY Papers.
77. Physicians for a National Health Program, "The History and Accomplishments of PNHP," no date, in the author's possession. On physicians' reform organizations, see Engler, Doctors and Reformers; on the grassroots organizing of medical students, see Naomi Rogers, "'Caution: The AMA may be dangerous to your health': The Student Health Organizations (SHO) and American Medicine, 1965-1970," Radical History Review 80 (spring 2001): 5-34.
78. Physicians for a National Health Program, "The History and Accomplishments of PNHP," no date, in the author's possession. On physicians' reform organizations, see Engler, Doctors and Reformers; on the grassroots organizing of medical students, see Naomi Rogers, "'Caution: The AMA may be dangerous to your health': The Student Health Organizations (SHO) and American Medicine, 1965-1970," Radical History Review 80 (spring 2001): 5-34.
79. Physicians for a National Health Program, "The History and Accomplishments of PNHP," no date, in the author's possession. On physicians' reform organizations, see Engler, Doctors and Reformers; on the grassroots organizing of medical students, see Naomi Rogers, "'Caution: The AMA may be dangerous to your health': The Student Health Organizations (SHO) and American Medicine, 1965-1970," Radical History Review 80 (spring 2001): 5-34.
80. For an overview of state campaigns, see "Health Care Justice in the States," available at: http://www.uhcan. org/files/states/states.html, accessed October 22, 2002.
81. Health Care for All Oregon, "Partial List of Measure 23 Supporters," available at: http://www.healthcareforall oregon.org/endorsers.htm, accessed October 22, 2002. The Oregon initiative failed on November 5, 2002, just as this article was going to press. Opponents spent $1.4 million and ran a lastminute advertising blitz, supporters spent only $35 000, and Oregon residents already faced a tax increase due to state budget shortfalls. "Voters reject initiatives," Wall Street Journal, November 7, 2002, A5.
82. Health Care for All Oregon, "Partial List of Measure 23 Supporters," available at: http://www.healthcareforall oregon.org/endorsers.htm, accessed October 22, 2002. The Oregon initiative failed on November 5, 2002, just as this article was going to press. Opponents spent $1.4 million and ran a lastminute advertising blitz, supporters spent only $35 000, and Oregon residents already faced a tax increase due to state budget shortfalls. "Voters reject initiatives," Wall Street Journal, November 7, 2002, A5.
83. This strategy is particularly evident in Maryland, where gaining the endorsements of over 1600 organizations has been a top priority of health reform activists; Maryland Health Care for All, "Who We Are," available at: http://healthcareforall.com/whoweare, accessed October 22, 2002.
84. "Summary of Proceedings, 2001 National UHCAN Conference," available at: http://www.uhcan.org/files/about/confproc_2001.html, accessed October 22, 2002; "Activists Denounce Anthem as 'Villain,'" Portland Press Herald, June 1, 2002. Opponents of the Portland referendum spent $400 000, backers $30 000; "5 Firms Vie to Study Universal Health Care Feasibility," Bangor Daily News, June 25, 2002.
85. "Summary of Proceedings, 2001 National UHCAN Conference," available at: http://www.uhcan.org/files/about/confproc.2001.html, accessed October 22, 2002; "Activists Denounce Anthem as 'Villain,'" Portland Press Herald, June 1, 2002. Opponents of the Portland referendum spent $400 000, backers $30 000; "5 Firms Vie to Study Universal Health Care Feasibility," Bangor Daily News, June 25, 2002.
86. "Summary of Proceedings, 2001 National UHCAN Conference," available at: http://www.uhcan.org/files/about/confproc_2001.html, accessed October 22, 2002; "Activists Denounce Anthem as 'Villain,'" Portland Press Herald, June 1, 2002. Opponents of the Portland referendum spent $400 000, backers $30 000; "5 Firms Vie to Study Universal Health Care Feasibility," Bangor Daily News, June 25, 2002.
87. The Maryland Citizens' Health Initiative, while still in the policy development stage, will propose a mix of public and private insurance as a step toward universal coverage; see http://healthcareforall.com/theplan.htm, accessed October 22, 2002. UHCAN, a major umbrella group founded by Ohio reformers and disability activists in 1992, supports state single-payer initiatives but prefers to emphasize "universal coverage" over "single-payer" to avoid alienating potential supporters; Corinne Sutter-Brown, communication with the author, August 14, 2002.
88. The Maryland Citizens' Health Initiative, while still in the policy development stage, will propose a mix of public and private insurance as a step toward universal coverage; see http://healthcareforall.com/theplan.htm, accessed October 22, 2002. UHCAN, a major umbrella group founded by Ohio reformers and disability activists in 1992, supports state single-payer initiatives but prefers to emphasize "universal coverage" over "single-payer" to avoid alienating potential supporters; Corinne Sutter-Brown, communication with the author, August 14, 2002.
89. "2002 Annual Conference," available at: http://www.uhcan.org/files/about/conference.2002.html, accessed October 22, 2002.
90. Jennifer N. Edwards, Michael M. Doty, and Cathy Schoen, "The erosion of employer-based health coverage and the threat to workers' health care," Issue Brief (Commonwealth Fund, New York, NY), August 2002; "Elderly worry as insurers cut medicare plans for 50 000," New York Times, December 26, 2000, B4; Robert Pear, "Many doctors shun patients with medicare," New York Times, March 17, 2002, 1; Stephanie Simon, "Medicaid Ax is falling as recession saps states," Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2002, A1.
91. Jennifer N. Edwards, Michael M. Doty, and Cathy Schoen, "The erosion of employer-based health coverage and the threat to workers' health care," Issue Brief (Commonwealth Fund, New York, NY), August 2002; "Elderly worry as insurers cut medicare plans for 50 000," New York Times, December 26, 2000, B4; Robert Pear, "Many doctors shun patients with medicare," New York Times, March 17, 2002, 1; Stephanie Simon, "Medicaid Ax is falling as recession saps states," Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2002, A1.
92. Jennifer N. Edwards, Michael M. Doty, and Cathy Schoen, "The erosion of employer-based health coverage and the threat to workers' health care," Issue Brief (Commonwealth Fund, New York, NY), August 2002; "Elderly worry as insurers cut medicare plans for 50 000," New York Times, December 26, 2000, B4; Robert Pear, "Many doctors shun patients with medicare," New York Times, March 17, 2002, 1; Stephanie Simon, "Medicaid Ax is falling as recession saps states," Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2002, A1.
93. Jennifer N. Edwards, Michael M. Doty, and Cathy Schoen, "The erosion of employer-based health coverage and the threat to workers' health care," Issue Brief (Commonwealth Fund, New York, NY), August 2002; "Elderly worry as insurers cut medicare plans for 50 000," New York Times, December 26, 2000, B4; Robert Pear, "Many doctors shun patients with medicare," New York Times, March 17, 2002, 1; Stephanie Simon, "Medicaid Ax is falling as recession saps states," Los Angeles Times, March 5, 2002, A1.
94. Nancy Tomes, "Merchants of health: Medicine and consumer culture in the United States, 1900-1940," Journal of American History 88 (2) (2001): 519-547.
95. Quoted in Martin Kuz, "A Faint Pulse: Universal Health Care, a Concept Left for Dead, Twitches Back to Life," Cleveland Scene, April 11, 2002. Gordon is the founder of Ohio's Single Payer Action Network.