Towards a theory of the laminar architecture of cerebral cortex: Computational clues from the visual system

Cerebral Cortex

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 100-113

  Raizada, Rajeev D S ^a   Grossberg, Stephen ^b  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN CORTEX; COGNITION; CONFERENCE PAPER; CYTOARCHITECTURE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; NERVE PROJECTION; PERCEPTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; THEORY; VISUAL CORTEX; VISUAL FIELD; VISUAL SYSTEM;

EID: 0037213791     PISSN: 10473211     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/cercor/13.1.100     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (159)

1. Ahissar M, Hochstein S (1993) Attentional control of early perceptual learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:5718-5722.
2. Ahmed B, Anderson JC, Martin KAC, Nelson JC (1997) Map of the synapses onto layer 4 basket cells of the primary visual cortex of the cat. J Comp Neurol 380:230-242.
3. Amir Y, Harel M, Malach R (1993) Cortical hierarchy reflected in the organization of intrinsic connections in macaque monkey visual cortex. J Comp Neurol 334:19-46.
4. Amunts K, Istomin V, Schleicher A, Zilles K (1995) Postnatal development of the human primary motor cortex: A quantitative cytoarchitectonic analysis. Anat Embryol (Berl) 192:557-571.
5. Aroniadou VA, Keller A (1993) The patterns and synaptic properties of horizontal intracortical connections in the rat motor cortex. J Neurophysiol 70:1553-1569.
6. Barbas H, Pandya DN (1989) Architecture and intrinsic connections of the prefrontal cortex in the rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol 286:353-375.
7. Barbas H, Rempel-Clower N (1997) Cortical structure predicts the pattern of corticocortical connections. Cereb Cortex 7:635-646.
8. Blasdel GG, Lund JS (1983) Termination of afferent axons in macaque striate cortex. J Neurosci 3:1389-1413.
9. Blasdel GG, Lund JS, Fitzpatrick D (1985) Intrinsic connections of macaque striate cortex: Axonal projections of cells outside lamina 4C. J Neurosci 5:3350-3369.
10. Bosking W, Zhang Y, Schofield B, Fitzpatrick D (1997) Orientation selectivity and the arrangement of horizontal connections in tree shrew striate cortex. J Neurosci 17:2112-2127.
11. Bowden DM, Martin RF (1995) NeuroNames brain hierarchy. Neuroimage 2:63-83. (NeuroNames database is online at http://rprcsgi.rprc.washington.edu/neuronames/.)
12. Bradski G, Grossberg S (1995) Fast-learning VIEWNET architectures for recognizing three-dimensional objects from multiple two-dimensional views. Neural Networks 8:1053-1080.
13. Briggs F, Callaway EM (2001) Layer-specific input to distinct cell types in layer 6 of monkey primary visual cortex. J Neurosci 21:3600-3608.
14. Brown JW, Bullock D, Grossberg S (2000) How Laminar Frontal Cortex and Basal Ganglia Circuits Interact to Control Planned and Reactive Saccades. Boston University Technical Report CAS/CNS-2000-023 (submitted for publication).
15. Bullier J, Huṕ JM, James A, Girard P (1996) Functional interactions between areas V1 and V2 in the monkey. J Physiol Paris 90:217-220.
16. Callaway EM (1998) Local cicrcuits in primary visual cortex of the macaque monkey. Annu Rev Neurosci 21:47-74.
17. Callaway EM, Wiser AK (1996) Contributions of individual layer 2-5 spiny neurons to local circuits in macaque primary visual cortex. Vis Neurosci 13:907-922.
18. Caputo G, Guerra S (1998) Attentional selection by distractor suppression. Vision Res 38:669-689.
19. Carpenter GA, Ross WD (1995) ART-EMAP - A neural-network architecture for object recognition by evidence accumulation. IEEE Trans Neural Networks 6:805-818.
20. Chey J, Grossberg S, Mingolla E (1997) Neural dynamics of motion grouping: From aperture ambiguity to object speed and direction. J Opt Soc Am A 14:2570-2594.
21. Dantzker JL, Callaway EM (2000) Laminar sources of synaptic input to cortical inhibitory interneurons and pyramidal neurons. Nat Neurosci 3:701-707.
22. De Weerd P, Peralta MR, Desimone LGR, Ungerleider LG (1999) Loss of attentional stimulus selection after extrastriate cortical lesions in macaques. Nat Neurosci 2:753-758.
23. Dombrowski SM, Hilgetag CC, Barbas H (2001) Quantitative architecture distinguishes prefrontal cortical systems in the rhesus monkey. Cereb Cortex 11:975-988.
24. Downing CJ (1988) Expectancy and visual-spatial attention: Effects on perceptual quality. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 14:188-202.
25. Dresp B, Grossberg S (1997) Contour integration across polarities and spatial gaps: From local contrast filtering to global grouping. Vision Res 37:913-924.
26. Elder JH, Zucker SW (1998) Evidence for boundary-specific grouping. Vision Res 38:143-152.
27. Engel AK, Fries P, Singer W (2001) Dynamic predictions: Oscillations and synchrony in top-down processing. Nat Rev Neurosci 2:704-716.
28. Felleman DJ, Van Essen DC (1991) Distributed hierarchical processing in primate cerebral cortex. Cereb Cortex 1:1-47.
29. Ferster D, Chung S, Wheat H (1996) Orientation selectivity of thalamic input to simple cells of cat visual cortex. Nature 380:249-252.
30. Finkel LH, Edelman GM (1989) Integration of distributed cortical systems by reentry: A computer simulation of interactive functionally segregated visual areas. J Neurosci 9:3188-3208.
31. Fitzpatrick D (1996) The functional organization of local circuits in visual cortex: Insights from the study of tree shrew striate cortex. Cereb Cortex 6:329-341.
32. Fitzpatrick D, Lund JS, Blasdel GG (1985) Intrinsic connections of macaque striate cortex: Afferent and efferent connections of lamina 4C. J Neurosci 5: 3329-3349.
33. Fung SH, Burstein D, Born RT (1998) In vivo microelectrode track reconstruction using magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosci Methods 80:215-224.
34. Galuske RA, Singer W (1996) The origin and topography of long-range intrinsic projections in cat visual cortex: A developmental study. Cereb Cortex 6:417-430.
35. Gao E, Suga N (1998) Experience-dependent corticofugal adjustment of midbrain frequency map in bat auditory system. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:12663-12670.
36. Gilbert CD, Wiesel TN (1979) Morphology and intracortical projections of functionally characterised neurones in the cat visual cortex. Nature 280:120-125.
37. Gilbert CD, Wiesel TN (1989) Columnar specificity of intrinsic horizontal and cortico-cortical connections in cat visual cotex. J Neurosci 9:2432-2442.
38. Goldman-Rakic PS (1995) Cellular basis of working memory. Neuron 14:477-485
39. Grieve KL, Sillito AM (1991a) The length summation properties of layer vi cells in the visual cortex and hypercomplex cell end zone inhibition. Exp Brain Res 84:319-325.
40. Grieve KL, Sillito AM (1991b) A re-appraisal of the role of layer VI of the visual cortex in the generation of cortical end inhibition. Exp Brain Res 87:521-529.
41. Grieve KL, Sillito AM (1995) Non-length-tuned cells in layers II/III and IV of the visual cortex: The effect of blockade of layer VI on responses to stimuli of different lengths. Exp Brain Res 104:12-20.
42. Grosof DH, Shapley RM, Hawken MJ (1993) Macaque V1 neurons can signal 'illusory' contours. Nature 365:550-552.
43. Grossberg S (1973) Contour enhancement, short term memory, and constancies in reverberating neural networks. Stud Appl Math 52:217-257. [Reprinted in Grossberg S (1982) Studies of mind and brain. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.]
44. Grossberg S (1980) How does a brain build a cognitive code? Psychol Rev 87:1-51.
45. Grossberg S (1994) 3-D vision and figure-ground separation by visual cortex. Percept Psychophys 55:48-120.
46. Grossberg S (1995) The attentive brain. Am Sci 83:438-449.
47. Grossberg S (1999a) How does the cerebral cortex work? Learning, attention, and grouping by the laminar circuits of visual cortex. Spat Vis 12:163-187.
48. Grossberg S (1999b) The link between brain learning, attention, and consciousness. Conscious Cogn 8:1-44.
49. Grossberg S (2000a) The complementary brain: Unifying brain dynamics and modularity. Trends Cogn Sci 4:233-246.
50. Grossberg S (2000b) How hallucinations may arise from brain mechanisms of learning, attention, and volition. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 6:583-592.
51. Grossberg S, Grunewald A (1997) Cortical synchronization and perceptual framing. J Cogn Neurosci 9:117-132.
52. Grossberg S, Mingolla E (1985) Neural dynamics of form perception: Boundary completion, illusory figures, and neon color spreading. Psychol Rev 92:173-211.
53. Grossberg S, Myers CW (2000) The resonant dynamics of speech perception: Interword integration and duration-dependent backward effects. Psychol Rev 107:735-767.
54. Grossberg S, Raizada RDS (2000) Contrast-sensitive perceptual grouping and object-based attention in the laminar circuits of primary visual cortex. Vision Res 40:1413-1432.
55. Grossberg S, Somers D (1991) Synchronized oscillations during cooperative feature linking in a cortical model of visual perception. Neural Networks 4:453-466.
56. Grossberg S, Williamson JR (2001) A neural model of how horizontal and interlaminar connections of visual cortex develop into adult circuits that carry out perceptual grouping and learning. Cereb Cortex 11:37-58.
57. Grossberg S, Mingolla E, Ross WD (1997) Visual brain and visual perception: How does the cortex do perceptual grouping? Trends Neurosci 20:106-111.
58. Grossberg S, Mingolla E, Viswanathan L (2001) Neural dynamics of motion integration and segmentation within and across apertures. Vision Res 41:2521-2553.
59. Harth E, Unnikrishnan KP, Pandya AS (1987) The inversion of sensory processing by feedback pathways: A model of visual cognitive functions. Science 237:184-187.
60. Heeger DJ (1992) Normalization of cell responses in cat striate cortex. Vis Neurosci 9:181-197.
61. Heitger F, von der Heydt R, Peterhans E, Rosenthaler L, Kübler O (1998) Simulation of neural contour mechanisms: Representing anomalous contours. Image Vision Comput 16:407-421.
62. Hirsch JA, Gilbert CD (1991) Synaptic physiology of horizontal connections in the cat's visual cortex. J Neurosci 11:1800-1809.
63. Howe PD, Grossberg S (2001) Laminar cortical circuits for stereopsis and surface depth perception. Soc Neurosci Abstr 164.17.
64. Hubel DH, Wiesel TN (1977) Ferrier lecture. Functional architecture of macaque monkey visual cortex. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 198:1-59.
65. Ito M, Gilbert CD (1999) Attention modulates contextual influences in the primary visual cortex of alert monkeys. Neuron 22:593-604.
66. Kaas JH (1999) Is most of neural plasticity in the thalamus cortical? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7622-3.
67. Kanizsa G (1979) Organization in Vision: Essays on Gestalt Perception. New York: Praeger.
68. Kapadia MK, Westheimer G, Gilbert CD (2000). Spatial distribution of contextual interactions in primary visual cortex and in visual perception. J Neurophysiol 84:2048-2062.
69. Kisvarday ZF, Cowey A, Smith AD, Somogyi P (1989) Interlaminar and lateral excitatory amino acid connections in the striate cortex of monkey. J Neurosci 9:667-682.
70. Knierim JJ, Van Essen DC (1992) Neuronal responses to static texture patterns in area V1 of the alert macaque monkey. J Neurophysiol 67:961-80.
71. Kohn A, Metz C, Quibrera M, Tommerdahl MA, Whitsel BL (2000). Functional neocortical microcircuitry demonstrated with intrinsic signal optical imaging in vitro. Neuroscience 95:51-62.
72. Kotter R, Staiger JF, Zilles K, Luhmann HJ (1998) Analysing functional connectivity in brain slices by a combination of infrared video microscopy, flash photolysis of caged compounds and scanning methods. Neuroscience 86:265-277.
73. Krimer LS, Hyde TM, Herman MM, Saunders RC (1997) The entorhinal cortex: An examination of cyto- and myeloarchitectonic organization in humans. Cereb Cortex 7:722-731.
74. Kritzer MF, Goldman-Rakic PS (1995) Intrinsic circuit organization of the major layers and sub-layers of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the rhesus monkey. J Comp Neurol 359:131-143.
75. Krupa DJ, Ghazanfar AA, Nicolelis MA (1999) Immediate thalamic sensory plasticity depends on corticothalamic feedback. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:8200-8205.
76. Lamme VAF, Rodriguez-Rodriguez V, Spekreijse H (1999) Separate processing dynamics for texture elements, boundaries and surfaces in primary visual cortex of the macaque monkey. Cereb Cortex 9:406-413.
77. Lee TS, Mumford D, Romero R, Lamme VAF (1998) The role of primary visual cortex in higher level vision. Vision Res 38:2429-2454.
78. Lee TS, Nguyen M (2001). Dynamics of subjective contour formation in the early visual cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:1907-1911.
79. Levitt JB, Lewis DA, Yoshioka T, Lund JS (1993) Topography of pyramidal neuron intrinsic connections in macaque monkey prefrontal cortex (areas 9 and 46). J Comp Neurol 338:360-376.
80. Li Z (1998) A neural model of contour integration in the primary visual cortex. Neural Comput 10:903-940.
81. Luck SJ, Chelazzi L, Hillyard SA, Desimone R (1997) Neural mechanisms of spatial selective attention in areas V1, V2, and V4 of macaque visual cortex. J Neurophysiol 77, 24-42.
82. Lund JS (1987) Local circuit neurons of macaque monkey striate cortex: I. Neurons of laminae 4C and 5A. J Comp Neurol 257:60-92.
83. Lund JS, Boothe RG (1975) Interlaminar connections and pyramidal neuron organisation in the visual cortex, area 17, of the macaque monkey. J Comp Neurol 159:305-334.
84. Lund JS, Wu CQ (1997) Local circuit neurons of macaque monkey striate cortex: IV. Neurons of laminae 1-3A. J Comp Neurol 384:109-126.
85. Lund JS, Hawken MJ, Parker AJ (1988) Local circuit neurons of macaque monkey striate cortex: II. Neurons of laminae 5B and 6. J Comp Neurol 276:1-29.
86. McGuire BA, Gilbert CD, Rivlin PK, Wiesel TN (1991) Targets of horizontal connections in macaque primary visual cortex. J Comp Neurol 305:370-392.
87. McGuire BA, Hornung JP, Gilbert CD, Wiesel TN (1984) Patterns of synaptic input to layer 4 of cat striate cortex. J Neurosci 4:3021-3033.
88. Mehta AD, Ulbert I, Schroeder CE (2000a) Intermodal selective attention in monkeys. I: Distribution and timing of effects across visual areas. Cereb Cortex 10:343-358.
89. Mehta AD, Ulbert I, Schroeder CE (2000b). Intermodal selective attention in monkeys. II: Physiological mechanisms of modulation. Cereb Cortex 10:359-370.
90. Melchitzky DS, Sesack SR, Pucak ML, Lewis DA (1998) Synaptic targets of pyramidal neurons providing intrinsic horizontal connections in monkey prefrontal cortex. J Comp Neurol 390:211-224.
91. Miller B, Blake NM, Erinjeri JP, Reistad CE, Sexton T, Admire P, Woolsey TA (2001) Postnatal growth of intrinsic connections in mouse barrel cortex. J Comp Neurol 436:17-31.
92. Miller KD, Pinto DJ, Simons DJ (2001) Processing in layer 4 of the neocortical circuit: New insights from visual and somatosensory cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 11:488-497.
93. Montero VM (1991) A quantitative study of synaptic contacts on interneurons and relay cells of the cat lateral geniculate nucleus. Exp Brain Res 86:257-270.
94. Moore CI, Nelson SB, and Sur M (1999) Dynamics of neuronal processing in rat somatosensory cortex. Trends Neurosci 22:513-520.
95. Mountcastle VB (1957) Modality and topographic properties of single neurons of cats somatic sensory cortex. J Neurophysiol 20:408-434.
96. Mounts JRW (2000) Evidence for suppressive mechanisms in attentional selection: Feature singletons produce inhibitory surrounds. Percept Psychophys 62:969-983.
97. Mumford D (1992) On the computational architecture of the neocortex. II. The role of cortico-cortical loops. Biol Cybern 1992:241-51.
98. Neumann H, Sepp W (1999) Recurrent V1-V2 interaction in early visual boundary processing. Biol Cybern 81:425-444.
99. Northcutt RG, Kaas JH (1995) The emergence and evolution of mam-malian neocortex. Trends Neurosci 18:373-379.
100. Olshausen BA, Anderson CH, Van Essen DC (1993) A neurobiological model of visual attention and invariant pattern recognition based on dynamic routing of information. J Neurosci 13:4700-4719.
101. Paradiso MA, Nakayama K (1991) Brightness perception and filling-in. Vision Res 31:1221-1236.
102. Parker JL, Dostrovsky JO (1999) Cortical involvement in the induction, but not expression, of thalamic plasticity. J Neurosci 19:8623-9.
103. Pessoa L, Thompson E, Noë A (1998) Finding out about filling-in: A guide to perceptual completion for visual science and the philosophy of perception. Behav Brain Sci 21:723-802.
104. Peterhans E, von der Heydt R (1989) Mechanisms of contour perception in monkey visual cortex. II. Contours bridging gaps. J Neurosci 9:1749-1763.
105. Peters AG, Sethares C (1991) Organization of pyramidal neurons in area 17 of monkey visual cortex. J Comp Neurol 306:1-23.
106. Polat U, Mizobe K, Pettet MW, Kasamatsu T, Norcia AM (1998) Collinear stimuli regulate visual responses depending on cell's contrast threshold. Nature 391:580-584.
107. Pollen DA (1999) On the neural correlates of visual perception. Cereb Cortex 9:4-19.
108. Raizada RDS, Grossberg S (2001). Context-sensitive binding by the laminar circuits of V1 and V2: A unified model of perceptual grouping, attention, and orientation contrast. Vis Cogn 8:431-466.
109. Rao RPN, Ballard DH (1999) Predictive coding in the visual cortex: A functional interpretation of some extra-classical receptive field effects. Nat Neurosci 2:79-87.
110. Read HL, Winer JA, Schreiner CE (2001) Modular organization of intrinsic connections associated with spectral tuning in cat auditory cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:8042-8047.
111. Redies C, Crook JM, Creutzfeldt OD (1986) Neuronal responses to borders with and without luminance gradients in cat visual cortex and dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Exp Brain Res 61:469-481.
112. Rempel-Clower NL, Barbas H (2000). The laminar pattern of connections between prefrontal and anterior temporal cortices in the rhesus monkey is related to cortical structure and function. Cereb Cortex 10:851-865.
113. Reynolds J, Chelazzi L, Desimone R (1999) Competitive mechanisms subserve attention in macaque areas V2 and V4. J Neurosci 19: 1736-1753.
114. Rioult-Pedotti MS, Friedman D, Hess G, Donoghue JP (1998) Strengthening of horizontal cortical connections following skill learning. Nat Neurosci 1:230-234.
115. Rockland KS, Virga A (1989) Terminal arbors of individual 'feedback' axons projecting from area V2 to V1 in the macaque monkey: A study using immunohistochemistry of anterogradely transported Phaseolus vulgaris-leucoagglutinin. J Comp Neurol 285:54-72.
116. Rockland KS, Virga A (1990) Organization of individual cortical axons projecting from area V1 (area 17) to V2 (area 18) in the macaque monkey. Vis Neurosci 4:11-28.
117. Roelfsema PR, Lamme VAF, Spekreijse H (1998) Object-based attention in the primary visual cortex of the macaque monkey. Nature 395: 376-381.
118. Roelfsema PR, Spekreijse H (1999) Correlates of a gradual spread of attention over a traced curve in macaque area V1. Soc Neurosci Abstr 7.2.
119. Roelfsema PR, Spekreijse H (2001) The representation of erroneously perceived stimuli in the primary visual cortex. Neuron 31:853-863.
120. Rogers-Ramachandran DC, Ramachandran VS (1998) Psychophysical evidence for boundary and surface systems in human vision. Vision Res 38(1):71-77.
121. Rossi AF, Desimone R, Ungerleider LG (2001) Contextual modulation in primary visual cortex of macaques. J Neurosci 21:1698-1709.
122. Ruthazer ES, Stryker MP (1996) The role of activity in the development of long-range horizontal connections in area 17 of the ferret. J Neurosci 16:7253-7269.
123. Salin P, Bullier J (1995) Corticocortical connections in the visual system: Structure and function. Physiol Rev 75:107-154.
124. Sandell JH, Schiller PH (1982) Effect of cooling area 18 on striate cortex cells in the squirrel monkey. J Neurophysiol 48:38-48.
125. Schmidt KE, Goebel R, Löwel S, Singer W (1997) The perceptual grouping criterion of colinearity is reflected by anisotropies of connections in the primary visual cortex. Eur J Neurosci 9:1083-1089.
126. Sengpiel F, Sen A, Blakemore C (1997) Characteristics of surround inhibition in cat area 17. Exp Brain Res 116:216-228.
127. Sharma J, Angelucci A, Sur M (2000). Induction of visual orientation modules in auditory cortex. Nature 404:841-847.
128. Sheth BR, Sharma J, Rao SC, Sur M (1996) Orientation maps of subjective contours in visual cortex. Science 274:2110-2115.
129. Sillito AM, Jones HE, Gerstein GL, West DC (1994) Feature-linked synchronization of thalamic relay cell firing induced by feedback from the visual cortex. Nature 369:479-482.
130. Sincich LC, Blasdel GG (2001). Oriented axon projections in primary visual cortex of the monkey. J Neurosci 21:4416-4426.
131. Skoglund TS, Pascher R, Berthold CH (1997) The existence of a layer IV in the rat motor cortex. Cereb Cortex 7:178-80.
132. Smith AT, Singh KD, Greenlee MW (2000) Attentional suppression of activity in the human visual cortex. Neuroreport 11:271-277.
133. Smith PH, Populin LC (2001). Fundamental differences between the thalamocortical recipient layers of the cat auditory and visual cortices. J Comp Neurol 436:508-519.
134. Snodderly DM, Gur M (1995) Organization of striate cortex of alert, trained monkeys (Macaca fascicularis): Ongoing activity, stimulus selectivity, and widths of receptive field activating regions. J Neurophysiol 74:2100-2125.
135. Somers DC, Todorov EV, Siapas AG, Toth LJ, Kim D, and Sur M (1998) A local circuit approach to understanding integration of long-range inputs in primary visual cortex. Cereb Cortex, 8, 204-217.
136. Steinman BA, Steinman SB, Lehmkuhle S (1995) Visual attention mechanisms show a center-surround organization. Vision Res 35:1859-1869.
137. Stemmler M, Usher M, Niebur E (1995) Lateral interactions in primary visual cortex: A model bridging physiology and psychophysics. Science 269:1877-1880.
138. Stepniewska I, Preuss TM, Kaas JH (1993) Architectonics, somatotopic organization, and ip-silateral cortical connections of the primary motor area (M1) of owl monkeys. J Comp Neurol 330:238-271.
139. Stratford KJ, Tarczy-Hornoch K, Martin KAC, Bannister NJ, Jack JJB (1996) Excitatory synaptic inputs to spiny stellate cells in cat visual cortex. Nature 382:258-261.
140. Swaminathan G, Grossberg S (2001) Laminar cortical circuits for the perception of slanted and curved 3-D surfaces. Soc Neurosci Abstr 619.49.
141. Tamas G, Somogyi P, Buhl EH (1998) Differentially interconnected networks of GABAergic interneurons in the visual cortex of the cat. J Neurosci 18:4255-4270.
142. Tanifuji M, Li H, Yamane Y, Rockland KS (2001). Horizontal intrinsic connections as the anatom-ical basis for the functional columns in the macaque inferior temporal cortex. Soc Neurosci Abstr 620.7.
143. Tanifuji M, Sugiyama T, Murase K (1994) Horizontal propagation of excitation in rat visual cortical slices revealed by optical imaging. Science 266:1057-1059.
144. Temereanca S, Simons DJ (2001) Topographic specificity in the functional effects of corticofugal feedback in the whisker/barrel system. Soc Neurosci Abstr 393.6.
145. Thorpe S, Fize D, Marlot C (1996) Speed of processing in the human visual system. Nature 381:520-522.
146. Toth LJ, Rao SC, Kim DS, Somers D, Sur M (1996) Subthreshold facilitation and suppression in primary visual cortex revealed by intrinsic signal imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:9869-9874.
147. Tsotsos J, Culhane S, Wai W, Lai Y, Davis N, Nuflo F (1995) Modeling visual attention via selective tuning. Artificial Intelligence 78:507-547.
148. Ullman S (1995) Sequence seeking and counter streams: A computational model for bidirectional information flow in the visual cortex. Cereb Cortex 5:1-11.
149. Ungerleider LG, Mishkin M (1982) Two cortical visual systems. In: Analysis of Visual Behavior (Ingle DJ, Goodale MA, Mansfield RJW, eds), pp. 549-586. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
150. Usher M, Niebur E (1996) Modeling the temporal dynamics of it neurons in visual search: A mechanism for top-down selective attention. J Cogn Neurosci 8:311-327.
151. Valverde F (1985) The organizing principles of the primary visual cortex in the monkey. In: Cerebral cortex (Peters A, Jones EG, eds), vol. 3, pp. 207-257. New York: Plenum.
152. Van Essen DC, Newsome WT, Maunsell JH, Bixby JL (1986) The projections from striate cortex (V1) to areas V2 and V3 in the macaque monkey: Asymmetries, areal boundaries, and patchy connections. J Comp Neurol 244:451-480.
153. Vanduffel W, Tootell RB, Orban GA (2000). Attention-dependent suppression of metabolic activity in the early stages of the macaque visual system. Cereb Cortex 10:109-126.
154. von der Heydt R, Peterhans E, and Baumgartner G (1984) Illusory contours and cortical neuron responses. Science, 224, 1260-1262.
155. Watanabe T, Nanez JE, Sasaki Y (2001) Perceptual learning without perception. Nature 413:844-848.
156. Williams LR, Jacobs DW (1997) Stochastic completion fields: A neural model of illusory contour shape and salience. Neural Comput 9:837-858.
157. Yen SC, Finkel LH (1998) Extraction of perceptually salient contours by striate cortical networks. Vision Res 38:719-741.
158. Yuste R, Tank DW, Kleinfeld D (1997) Functional study of the rat cortical microcircuitry with voltage-sensitive dye imaging of neocortical slices. Cereb Cortex 7:546-558.
159. Zhang Y, Suga N, Yan J (1997) Corticofugal modulation of frequency processing in bat auditory system. Nature 387:900-903.