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In this regime, reversible heating arising from compressions is not radiated away, and the artificial viscosity creates irreversible heating in regions where shock waves occur.
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For this test, we increased the temperature of the more massive disk model (resolved by 200,000 partic[es) by a factor of two, reaching 100 K in the outer region; 350 years after the start of the simulations, the disk was still fairly axisymmetric and we started cooling it at the constant rate of about 0.2 K/year. The disk underwent increasingly strong spiral instabilities as it was cooled down, which produced an inward flux of mass and outward flux of angular momentum, but, overall, the outer surface density barely changed. Therefore, reaching a temperature only slightly smaller than that used in the standard initial conditions (42 K as opposed to 50 K) was enough to compensate for the decrease of surface density and give rise to clump formation after about 650 years. (Cooling was stopped when fragmentation was approached.)
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The authors thank G. Laughlin, D. Hollenbach, and A. Boss for useful and stimulating discussions. Simulations were carried outat the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center and at Consorzio Interuniversitario per il Calcolo Automatico dell'Italia Nord Orientale. This research was supported by a grant from the NSF and by the NASA Astrobiology Institute.
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