Children's envy and the emergence of the modern consumer ethic, 1890-1930

Journal of Social History

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2002, Pages

  Matt, Susan J ^a  

^a Dept of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0036951169     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0026     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children (New York, 1892), pp. 116-120, pp. 396-413. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," Mental Hygiene 11 (1927): p. 73.
2. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children (New York, 1892), pp. 116-120, pp. 396-413. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," Mental Hygiene 11 (1927): p. 73.
3. I define children as individuals under the age of 16. Although is a somewhat arbitrary dividing line, it seems to accord with the way the turn-of-the-century Americans defined childhood. Those working to regulate child labor, for instance, used 16 as the dividing line between childhood and adulthood. See Russell Friedman, Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor (New York, 1994), pp. 1, 22-23; John Spargo, The Bitter Cry of the Children (New York, 1906), pp. 148-153, 163-167 reprinted in Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963), pp. 39-44.
4. I define children as individuals under the age of 16. Although is a somewhat arbitrary dividing line, it seems to accord with the way the turn-of-the-century Americans defined childhood. Those working to regulate child labor, for instance, used 16 as the dividing line between childhood and adulthood. See Russell Friedman, Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor (New York, 1994), pp. 1, 22-23; John Spargo, The Bitter Cry of the Children (New York, 1906), pp. 148-153, 163-167 reprinted in Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963), pp. 39-44.
5. I define children as individuals under the age of 16. Although is a somewhat arbitrary dividing line, it seems to accord with the way the turn-of-the-century Americans defined childhood. Those working to regulate child labor, for instance, used 16 as the dividing line between childhood and adulthood. See Russell Friedman, Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor (New York, 1994), pp. 1, 22-23; John Spargo, The Bitter Cry of the Children (New York, 1906), pp. 148-153, 163-167 reprinted in Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Movement, 1900-1915 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1963), pp. 39-44.
6. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
7. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
8. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
9. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
10. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
11. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
12. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York, 1973), p. 129. For accounts of children playing with paper dolls cut from catalogs see Anne McCall and Mary Jane Henderson, Fragments of Yesterday: A Collection of Childhood Memories in Delaware County, 1892-1929 (Deposit, New York, 1993), p. 63; see also David Cohn, The Good Old Days: A History of American Morals and Manners as seen through the Sears Roebuck Catalogs 1905 to the Present (New York, 1940), p. 574; William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York, 1993) pp. 328-338; Miriam Formanek Brunell, Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, 1830-1930 (New Haven, CT, 1993), pp. 160-184. Harry Selfridge, "Children's Day," from "Notes Concerning Subjects of Talks Made by H.G.S. to Department Heads ..., as compiled by Waldo Warren, 1901-1906," Marshall Field's Archives, Chicago, September 25, 1905, quoted in William Leach, "Child-World in the Promised Land," p. 214.
13. Frank Shuttleworth and Mark May, "The Social Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans," in W.W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth (New York, 1933), pp. 7-9, 58. See also Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders, 7 (March 1990): pp. 143-169, especially p. 155. Robert and Helen Lynd, Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture (New York, 1929), pp. 81, 82n; Viola Goode Liddell, With a Southern Accent (Norman, Oklahoma, 1948), pp. 80-81.
14. Frank Shuttleworth and Mark May, "The Social Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans," in W.W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth (New York, 1933), pp. 7-9, 58. See also Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders, 7 (March 1990): pp. 143-169, especially p. 155. Robert and Helen Lynd, Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture (New York, 1929), pp. 81, 82n; Viola Goode Liddell, With a Southern Accent (Norman, Oklahoma, 1948), pp. 80-81.
15. Frank Shuttleworth and Mark May, "The Social Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans," in W.W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth (New York, 1933), pp. 7-9, 58. See also Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders, 7 (March 1990): pp. 143-169, especially p. 155. Robert and Helen Lynd, Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture (New York, 1929), pp. 81, 82n; Viola Goode Liddell, With a Southern Accent (Norman, Oklahoma, 1948), pp. 80-81.
16. Frank Shuttleworth and Mark May, "The Social Conduct and Attitudes of Movie Fans," in W.W. Charters, Motion Pictures and Youth (New York, 1933), pp. 7-9, 58. See also Kathy Peiss, "Making Faces: The Cosmetics Industry and the Cultural Construction of Gender, 1890-1930," Genders, 7 (March 1990): pp. 143-169, especially p. 155. Robert and Helen Lynd, Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture (New York, 1929), pp. 81, 82n; Viola Goode Liddell, With a Southern Accent (Norman, Oklahoma, 1948), pp. 80-81.
17. As one magazine writer recalled, his mother "continually impressed upon us children that we were 'as good as anybody,' and ... she would urge us to 'get to know the best people.' And by 'best people' she meant those who had the most money, and got their names in the society columns. What I am trying to make clear is that the whole atmosphere of our home was one of strain and worry. We were all striving so hard to succeed...." "Why I Quit Thinking About Myself," American Magazine, 103 (April 1927): p. 137. For other accounts of children learning to envy and strive from their parents see James S. Plant, "Sociological Factors Challenging the Practice of Psychiatry in a Metropolitan District," American Journal of Psychiatry, 8 (January 1929): pp. 705-716. Most of the children who saw Plant saw in his practice in suburban New Jersey were children whose parents had relocated to more affluent areas in their quest for status. Plant reported that many of the children in such families were plagued by feelings of insecurity and inferiority in their new, more elite surroundings.
18. As one magazine writer recalled, his mother "continually impressed upon us children that we were 'as good as anybody,' and ... she would urge us to 'get to know the best people.' And by 'best people' she meant those who had the most money, and got their names in the society columns. What I am trying to make clear is that the whole atmosphere of our home was one of strain and worry. We were all striving so hard to succeed...." "Why I Quit Thinking About Myself," American Magazine, 103 (April 1927): p. 137. For other accounts of children learning to envy and strive from their parents see James S. Plant, "Sociological Factors Challenging the Practice of Psychiatry in a Metropolitan District," American Journal of Psychiatry, 8 (January 1929): pp. 705-716. Most of the children who saw Plant saw in his practice in suburban New Jersey were children whose parents had relocated to more affluent areas in their quest for status. Plant reported that many of the children in such families were plagued by feelings of insecurity and inferiority in their new, more elite surroundings.
19. Gary Cross, Kids' Stuff: Toys and the Changing World of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA, 1997), p. 8; Bernard Mergen, "Made, Bought, and Stolen: Toys and the Culture of Childhood," in Small Worlds: Children and Adolescents in America 1850-1950, Elliott West and Paula Petrik, eds. (Lawrence, KS, 1992), p. 88. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class, p. 69-70 (Veblen does not discuss children but uses the term to discuss wives; nevertheless it seems applicable here).
20. Gary Cross, Kids' Stuff: Toys and the Changing World of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA, 1997), p. 8; Bernard Mergen, "Made, Bought, and Stolen: Toys and the Culture of Childhood," in Small Worlds: Children and Adolescents in America 1850-1950, Elliott West and Paula Petrik, eds. (Lawrence, KS, 1992), p. 88. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class, p. 69-70 (Veblen does not discuss children but uses the term to discuss wives; nevertheless it seems applicable here).
21. Gary Cross, Kids' Stuff: Toys and the Changing World of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA, 1997), p. 8; Bernard Mergen, "Made, Bought, and Stolen: Toys and the Culture of Childhood," in Small Worlds: Children and Adolescents in America 1850-1950, Elliott West and Paula Petrik, eds. (Lawrence, KS, 1992), p. 88. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class, p. 69-70 (Veblen does not discuss children but uses the term to discuss wives; nevertheless it seems applicable here).
22. Sol Bloom, The Autobiography of Sol Bloom (New York, 1948), pp. 174-175; See also Viola Goode Liddell, With A Southern Accent, pp. 67-68.
23. Sol Bloom, The Autobiography of Sol Bloom (New York, 1948), pp. 174-175; See also Viola Goode Liddell, With A Southern Accent, pp. 67-68.
24. Nora Atwood, "Children and Toys," Outlook, 122 (May 7, 1919): pp. 27-29.
25. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-Consciousness,"Pedagogical Seminary, 10 (June 1903): pp. 172-3; For other examples of children informing each other about the relative prestige of particular goods, see Nathalie Dana, Young in New York A Memoir of a Victorian Girlhood (Garden City, New York, 1963), pp. 64-65, 76-77, 99.
26. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-Consciousness,"Pedagogical Seminary, 10 (June 1903): pp. 172-3; For other examples of children informing each other about the relative prestige of particular goods, see Nathalie Dana, Young in New York A Memoir of a Victorian Girlhood (Garden City, New York, 1963), pp. 64-65, 76-77, 99.
27. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
28. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
29. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
30. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
31. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
32. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
33. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
34. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
35. Historian Viviana Zelizer has likened middle- and upper-class children at the turn of the century to "paupers." Ironically, poor children who worked frequently had more spending money than children from affluent households. David Nasaw has described the spending habits of working children from poor families who often pocketed a portion of their earnings and were thereby able to afford candy, toys, clothes, and nickelodeon shows. In contrast, middle-class children growing up at the turn of the century had less spending money and in consequence, fewer opportunities for consumer spending than many working-class children. By 1930 most child-rearing experts agreed that "every child needs an allowance," because the possession of money would inculcate fiscal responsibility and prudential shopping habits. Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York, 1985), pp. 5, 103, 112; Helen B. Seymour, "Money Matters with Young People," Outlook, 48 (September 23, 1893): p. 553, quoted in Viviana Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child, p. 103; David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and At Play (Garden City, New York, Doubleday, pp. 130-137; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood (Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 155, 246-250; Thomas D. Eliot, "Money and the Child's Own Standards of Living,"Journal of Home Economics, 24 (January 1932): p. 2; Francis Frisbie O'Donnell, "Every child needs an allowance," Parents Magazine, 5 (March 1930): pp. 18-19, 38-40. Gary Cross, Kid's Stuff, p. 51; David I. Macleod, The Age of the Child: Children in America, 1890-1920 (New York, 1998), p. 18.
36. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-Consciousness," p. 174, emphasis in the original; Linus Kline and C.J. France, "The Psychology of Ownership," Pedagogical Seminary, 6 (December 1899): pp. 452, 454.
37. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of Self-Consciousness," p. 174, emphasis in the original; Linus Kline and C.J. France, "The Psychology of Ownership," Pedagogical Seminary, 6 (December 1899): pp. 452, 454.
38. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off," pp. 174-175; Linus Kline and C.J. France, "The Psychology of Ownership," p. 453; Adolf Meyer, "The Lies that Children Tell," Scientific Monthly, 23 (December 1926): pp. 522, 526, 527.
39. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off," pp. 174-175; Linus Kline and C.J. France, "The Psychology of Ownership," p. 453; Adolf Meyer, "The Lies that Children Tell," Scientific Monthly, 23 (December 1926): pp. 522, 526, 527.
40. G. Stanley Hall and Theodore Smith, "Showing Off," pp. 174-175; Linus Kline and C.J. France, "The Psychology of Ownership," p. 453; Adolf Meyer, "The Lies that Children Tell," Scientific Monthly, 23 (December 1926): pp. 522, 526, 527.
41. See Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870; see also Susan J. Matt, "Frocks, Finery and Feelings: Rural and Urban Women's Envy, 1890-1930," in An Emotional History of the United States, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 377-395; See also Susan Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer Culture, 1890-1930 (University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming in 2003).
42. See Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870; see also Susan J. Matt, "Frocks, Finery and Feelings: Rural and Urban Women's Envy, 1890-1930," in An Emotional History of the United States, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 377-395; See also Susan Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer Culture, 1890-1930 (University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming in 2003).
43. See Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Class Culture in America, 1830-1870; see also Susan J. Matt, "Frocks, Finery and Feelings: Rural and Urban Women's Envy, 1890-1930," in An Emotional History of the United States, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 377-395; See also Susan Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer Culture, 1890-1930 (University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming in 2003).
44. Philippe Aries, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life, Robert Baldick, trans. (New York, 1962), pp. 110, 119; see also Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa (Cambridge, MA, 1988), pp. 126-128.
45. Philippe Aries, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life, Robert Baldick, trans. (New York, 1962), pp. 110, 119; see also Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The History of Anorexia Nervosa (Cambridge, MA, 1988), pp. 126-128.
46. For a fuller discussion of the doctrine of contentment, see David Shi, The Simple Life: Plain Living and High Thinking in American Culture (New York, 1985), pp. 100-125; see also Susan Matt, "Frocks, Finery and Feelings: 1890-1930," pp. 377-395.
47. For a fuller discussion of the doctrine of contentment, see David Shi, The Simple Life: Plain Living and High Thinking in American Culture (New York, 1985), pp. 100-125; see also Susan Matt, "Frocks, Finery and Feelings: 1890-1930," pp. 377-395.
48. Joseph Addison, "Discontent-An Allegory" in McGuffey's Sixth Eclectic Reader (New York, 1896), pp. 300-301; Charles McKay, "The Miller of the Dee," in Barnes National Reader (New York, 1884), pp. 177-178. See also Edna Henry Lee, The Lee Readers: Fourth Book (New York, 1912), p. 213; Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living (New York, 1924), pp. 220-221; John Manly, Edith Rickert, and Nina Leubrie, Good Reading: Fourth Reader (New York, 1927), pp. 180-181.
49. Joseph Addison, "Discontent-An Allegory" in McGuffey's Sixth Eclectic Reader (New York, 1896), pp. 300-301; Charles McKay, "The Miller of the Dee," in Barnes National Reader (New York, 1884), pp. 177-178. See also Edna Henry Lee, The Lee Readers: Fourth Book (New York, 1912), p. 213; Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living (New York, 1924), pp. 220-221; John Manly, Edith Rickert, and Nina Leubrie, Good Reading: Fourth Reader (New York, 1927), pp. 180-181.
50. Joseph Addison, "Discontent-An Allegory" in McGuffey's Sixth Eclectic Reader (New York, 1896), pp. 300-301; Charles McKay, "The Miller of the Dee," in Barnes National Reader (New York, 1884), pp. 177-178. See also Edna Henry Lee, The Lee Readers: Fourth Book (New York, 1912), p. 213; Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living (New York, 1924), pp. 220-221; John Manly, Edith Rickert, and Nina Leubrie, Good Reading: Fourth Reader (New York, 1927), pp. 180-181.
51. Joseph Addison, "Discontent-An Allegory" in McGuffey's Sixth Eclectic Reader (New York, 1896), pp. 300-301; Charles McKay, "The Miller of the Dee," in Barnes National Reader (New York, 1884), pp. 177-178. See also Edna Henry Lee, The Lee Readers: Fourth Book (New York, 1912), p. 213; Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living (New York, 1924), pp. 220-221; John Manly, Edith Rickert, and Nina Leubrie, Good Reading: Fourth Reader (New York, 1927), pp. 180-181.
52. Joseph Addison, "Discontent-An Allegory" in McGuffey's Sixth Eclectic Reader (New York, 1896), pp. 300-301; Charles McKay, "The Miller of the Dee," in Barnes National Reader (New York, 1884), pp. 177-178. See also Edna Henry Lee, The Lee Readers: Fourth Book (New York, 1912), p. 213; Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living (New York, 1924), pp. 220-221; John Manly, Edith Rickert, and Nina Leubrie, Good Reading: Fourth Reader (New York, 1927), pp. 180-181.
53. Charles McKay, "Daily Work," Williams' Choice Literature, Book Two Intermediate (New York 1898), pp. 149-150. See also Ellen E. Kenyon, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year: Thoughtfulness and Devotion (New York, 1910), pp. 152-154.
54. Charles McKay, "Daily Work," Williams' Choice Literature, Book Two Intermediate (New York 1898), pp. 149-150. See also Ellen E. Kenyon, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year: Thoughtfulness and Devotion (New York, 1910), pp. 152-154.
55. "The Discontented Buttercup," in Ellen E. Kenyon-Warner, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year, pp. 103-104; Henry Van Dyke, "The Foolish Fir Tree," in Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living, pp. 436-439; "The Two Jackdaws who Pretended," in Calvin Kendall and Marion Paine Steven, The Kendall Series of Readers, Third Reader (Boston, 1918), pp. 16-18; Charles Love Benjamin, "The Discontented Boy," St. Nicholas, 24 (November 1898): pp. 71-72.
56. "The Discontented Buttercup," in Ellen E. Kenyon-Warner, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year, pp. 103-104; Henry Van Dyke, "The Foolish Fir Tree," in Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living, pp. 436-439; "The Two Jackdaws who Pretended," in Calvin Kendall and Marion Paine Steven, The Kendall Series of Readers, Third Reader (Boston, 1918), pp. 16-18; Charles Love Benjamin, "The Discontented Boy," St. Nicholas, 24 (November 1898): pp. 71-72.
57. "The Discontented Buttercup," in Ellen E. Kenyon-Warner, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year, pp. 103-104; Henry Van Dyke, "The Foolish Fir Tree," in Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living, pp. 436-439; "The Two Jackdaws who Pretended," in Calvin Kendall and Marion Paine Steven, The Kendall Series of Readers, Third Reader (Boston, 1918), pp. 16-18; Charles Love Benjamin, "The Discontented Boy," St. Nicholas, 24 (November 1898): pp. 71-72.
58. "The Discontented Buttercup," in Ellen E. Kenyon-Warner, The Character Building Reader, Fourth Year, pp. 103-104; Henry Van Dyke, "The Foolish Fir Tree," in Howard Copeland Hill and Rollo LaVerne Lyman, Reading and Living, pp. 436-439; "The Two Jackdaws who Pretended," in Calvin Kendall and Marion Paine Steven, The Kendall Series of Readers, Third Reader (Boston, 1918), pp. 16-18; Charles Love Benjamin, "The Discontented Boy," St. Nicholas, 24 (November 1898): pp. 71-72.
59. Daniel Rodgers has noted a similar conservative tone in the children's stories and advice manuals of the early to mid-nineteenth century. Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children: Institutions, Fables, and Work Values in Nineteenth-Century America," Journal of Social History, 13 (Spring 1980): pp. 354-364.
60. "Felix Adler," National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 23 (New York, 1933), pp. 98-99. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children, pp. 116-120; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood ( Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 331-332. In examining these advice books I have tried to separate discussions of what was traditionally called jealous behavior from discussions of the envy of possessions, abilities, and opportunities of others. Peter Stearns has noted that experts increasingly came to conflate the meanings of jealousy and envy, and in the case of child-rearing advice I agree. Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions: Redefinitions and Historical Change," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993): pp. 36-74; Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise of Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," in Emotion and Social Change: Towards a New Psychohistory, Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Steams, eds. (New York, 1988), pp. 193-222.
61. "Felix Adler," National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 23 (New York, 1933), pp. 98-99. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children, pp. 116-120; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood ( Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 331-332. In examining these advice books I have tried to separate discussions of what was traditionally called jealous behavior from discussions of the envy of possessions, abilities, and opportunities of others. Peter Stearns has noted that experts increasingly came to conflate the meanings of jealousy and envy, and in the case of child-rearing advice I agree. Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions: Redefinitions and Historical Change," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993): pp. 36-74; Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise of Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," in Emotion and Social Change: Towards a New Psychohistory, Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Steams, eds. (New York, 1988), pp. 193-222.
62. "Felix Adler," National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 23 (New York, 1933), pp. 98-99. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children, pp. 116-120; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood ( Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 331-332. In examining these advice books I have tried to separate discussions of what was traditionally called jealous behavior from discussions of the envy of possessions, abilities, and opportunities of others. Peter Stearns has noted that experts increasingly came to conflate the meanings of jealousy and envy, and in the case of child-rearing advice I agree. Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions: Redefinitions and Historical Change," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993): pp. 36-74; Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise of Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," in Emotion and Social Change: Towards a New Psychohistory, Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Steams, eds. (New York, 1988), pp. 193-222.
63. "Felix Adler," National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 23 (New York, 1933), pp. 98-99. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children, pp. 116-120; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood ( Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 331-332. In examining these advice books I have tried to separate discussions of what was traditionally called jealous behavior from discussions of the envy of possessions, abilities, and opportunities of others. Peter Stearns has noted that experts increasingly came to conflate the meanings of jealousy and envy, and in the case of child-rearing advice I agree. Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions: Redefinitions and Historical Change," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993): pp. 36-74; Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise of Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," in Emotion and Social Change: Towards a New Psychohistory, Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Steams, eds. (New York, 1988), pp. 193-222.
64. "Felix Adler," National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, vol. 23 (New York, 1933), pp. 98-99. Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children, pp. 116-120; William Byron Forbush, Guidebook to Childhood ( Philadelphia, 1915), pp. 331-332. In examining these advice books I have tried to separate discussions of what was traditionally called jealous behavior from discussions of the envy of possessions, abilities, and opportunities of others. Peter Stearns has noted that experts increasingly came to conflate the meanings of jealousy and envy, and in the case of child-rearing advice I agree. Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions: Redefinitions and Historical Change," Journal of American History, 80 (June 1993): pp. 36-74; Peter N. Stearns, "The Rise of Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," in Emotion and Social Change: Towards a New Psychohistory, Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Steams, eds. (New York, 1988), pp. 193-222.
65. Filson Young, "Children's Parties," Living Age, 272 (February 17, 1912):p. 431; John Burroughs, "Corrupting the Innocents," The Independent, 61 (1906): pp. 1424-1425.
66. Filson Young, "Children's Parties," Living Age, 272 (February 17, 1912):p. 431; John Burroughs, "Corrupting the Innocents," The Independent, 61 (1906): pp. 1424-1425.
67. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York, 1981), pp. 7-12, 37-40; Peter Stearns, Battleground of Desire: The Struggle for Self Control in Modern America (New York, 1999), pp. 113-116; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes Toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), pp. 163-165; Hal Barron, Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth. Century New England (Cambridge, pp. 41-42; Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1964 [c1931]), pp. 73-101; T.H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics in James Paradis and George C. Williams, Evolution & Ethics: T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics With New Essays on Its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton, 1989), p. 85.
68. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York, 1981), pp. 7-12, 37-40; Peter Stearns, Battleground of Desire: The Struggle for Self Control in Modern America (New York, 1999), pp. 113-116; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes Toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), pp. 163-165; Hal Barron, Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth. Century New England (Cambridge, pp. 41-42; Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1964 [c1931]), pp. 73-101; T.H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics in James Paradis and George C. Williams, Evolution & Ethics: T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics With New Essays on Its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton, 1989), p. 85.
69. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York, 1981), pp. 7-12, 37-40; Peter Stearns, Battleground of Desire: The Struggle for Self Control in Modern America (New York, 1999), pp. 113-116; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes Toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), pp. 163-165; Hal Barron, Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth. Century New England (Cambridge, pp. 41-42; Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1964 [c1931]), pp. 73-101; T.H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics in James Paradis and George C. Williams, Evolution & Ethics: T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics With New Essays on Its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton, 1989), p. 85.
70. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York, 1981), pp. 7-12, 37-40; Peter Stearns, Battleground of Desire: The Struggle for Self Control in Modern America (New York, 1999), pp. 113-116; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes Toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), pp. 163-165; Hal Barron, Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth. Century New England (Cambridge, pp. 41-42; Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1964 [c1931]), pp. 73-101; T.H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics in James Paradis and George C. Williams, Evolution & Ethics: T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics With New Essays on Its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton, 1989), p. 85.
71. T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920 (New York, 1981), pp. 7-12, 37-40; Peter Stearns, Battleground of Desire: The Struggle for Self Control in Modern America (New York, 1999), pp. 113-116; Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes Toward the Consumer Society in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985), pp. 163-165; Hal Barron, Those Who Stayed Behind: Rural Society in Nineteenth. Century New England (Cambridge, pp. 41-42; Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1964 [c1931]), pp. 73-101; T.H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics in James Paradis and George C. Williams, Evolution & Ethics: T.H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics With New Essays on Its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton, 1989), p. 85.
72. See for instance T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace, pp. 7-10; Charles McGovern, Sold American: Inventing the Consumer, 1890-1940, (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1993), pp. 18-26.
73. See for instance T.J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace, pp. 7-10; Charles McGovern, Sold American: Inventing the Consumer, 1890-1940, (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1993), pp. 18-26.
74. Henry Harap, The Education of the Consumer: A Study in Curriculum Material (New York, 1924), pp. vii, 224-240. Isabelle Bevier "Coloring and Furnishing the Home" in The Home and Country Readers, Book Four [ed. Maryy A. LaSelle] (Boston, 1918),p 52-57; Ray Osgood Hughes, Economic Civics (Boston, 1921), pp. 15-17; "Bevier, Isabel," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 2 (Chicago, 1950), p. 61; "Hughes, Ray Osgood," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 3, p. 426.
75. Henry Harap, The Education of the Consumer: A Study in Curriculum Material (New York, 1924), pp. vii, 224-240. Isabelle Bevier "Coloring and Furnishing the Home" in The Home and Country Readers, Book Four [ed. Maryy A. LaSelle] (Boston, 1918),p 52-57; Ray Osgood Hughes, Economic Civics (Boston, 1921), pp. 15-17; "Bevier, Isabel," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 2 (Chicago, 1950), p. 61; "Hughes, Ray Osgood," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 3, p. 426.
76. Henry Harap, The Education of the Consumer: A Study in Curriculum Material (New York, 1924), pp. vii, 224-240. Isabelle Bevier "Coloring and Furnishing the Home" in The Home and Country Readers, Book Four [ed. Maryy A. LaSelle] (Boston, 1918),p 52-57; Ray Osgood Hughes, Economic Civics (Boston, 1921), pp. 15-17; "Bevier, Isabel," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 2 (Chicago, 1950), p. 61; "Hughes, Ray Osgood," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 3, p. 426.
77. Henry Harap, The Education of the Consumer: A Study in Curriculum Material (New York, 1924), pp. vii, 224-240. Isabelle Bevier "Coloring and Furnishing the Home" in The Home and Country Readers, Book Four [ed. Maryy A. LaSelle] (Boston, 1918),p 52-57; Ray Osgood Hughes, Economic Civics (Boston, 1921), pp. 15-17; "Bevier, Isabel," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 2 (Chicago, 1950), p. 61; "Hughes, Ray Osgood," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 3, p. 426.
78. Henry Harap, The Education of the Consumer: A Study in Curriculum Material (New York, 1924), pp. vii, 224-240. Isabelle Bevier "Coloring and Furnishing the Home" in The Home and Country Readers, Book Four [ed. Maryy A. LaSelle] (Boston, 1918),p 52-57; Ray Osgood Hughes, Economic Civics (Boston, 1921), pp. 15-17; "Bevier, Isabel," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 2 (Chicago, 1950), p. 61; "Hughes, Ray Osgood," in Who Was Who in America, Vol. 3, p. 426.
79. Gary Cross, Kids' Stuff, p. 124.
80. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for American Emotions," in An Emotional History of the United Sates, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 396-413; See Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions," pp. 37-39, 64, 66; Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children," pp. 354-364. Stearns makes a similar observation about the match between child-rearing advice and corporate needs. For a discussion of the emotional code for adult white-collar workers, see Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses; Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941, (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 42, 47; Stearns, Battleground of Desire, pp. 110, 175; Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1994), pp. 53-54.
81. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for American Emotions," in An Emotional History of the United Sates, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 396-413; See Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions," pp. 37-39, 64, 66; Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children," pp. 354-364. Stearns makes a similar observation about the match between child-rearing advice and corporate needs. For a discussion of the emotional code for adult white-collar workers, see Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses; Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941, (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 42, 47; Stearns, Battleground of Desire, pp. 110, 175; Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1994), pp. 53-54.
82. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for American Emotions," in An Emotional History of the United Sates, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 396-413; See Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions," pp. 37-39, 64, 66; Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children," pp. 354-364. Stearns makes a similar observation about the match between child-rearing advice and corporate needs. For a discussion of the emotional code for adult white-collar workers, see Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses; Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941, (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 42, 47; Stearns, Battleground of Desire, pp. 110, 175; Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1994), pp. 53-54.
83. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for
84. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for American Emotions," in An Emotional History of the United Sates, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 396-413; See Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions," pp. 37-39, 64, 66; Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children," pp. 354-364. Stearns makes a similar observation about the match between child-rearing advice and corporate needs. For a discussion of the emotional code for adult white-collar workers, see Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses; Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941, (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 42, 47; Stearns, Battleground of Desire, pp. 110, 175; Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1994), pp. 53-54.
85. Peter N. Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood: New Targets for American Emotions," in An Emotional History of the United Sates, Peter Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds. (New York, 1998), pp. 396-413; See Peter N. Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions," pp. 37-39, 64, 66; Daniel Rodgers, "Socializing Middle-Class Children," pp. 354-364. Stearns makes a similar observation about the match between child-rearing advice and corporate needs. For a discussion of the emotional code for adult white-collar workers, see Matt, Keeping Up With the Joneses; Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941, (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 42, 47; Stearns, Battleground of Desire, pp. 110, 175; Angel Kwolek-Folland, Engendering Business: Men and Women in the Corporate Office, 1870-1930 (Baltimore, MD, 1994), pp. 53-54.
86. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "Rivalry and Competition," in Guidance of Childhood and Youth: Readings in Child Study, Compiled by the Child Study Association of America, ed. Benjamin C. Gruenberg (New York, 1926), pp. 95-98. Douglas A. Thom, Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child (New York, 1929),pp. 179-181. See also Charles Germane and Edith Gayton Germane, Character Training: A Program for the Home (New York, 1929) pp. 68-69; Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys (Chicago, 1934), pp. 52-56. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has noted that there often is great similarity between parents' work and children's roles. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley CA, 1983), p. 156.
87. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "Rivalry and Competition," in Guidance of Childhood and Youth: Readings in Child Study, Compiled by the Child Study Association of America, ed. Benjamin C. Gruenberg (New York, 1926), pp. 95-98. Douglas A. Thom, Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child (New York, 1929),pp. 179-181. See also Charles Germane and Edith Gayton Germane, Character Training: A Program for the Home (New York, 1929) pp. 68-69; Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys (Chicago, 1934), pp. 52-56. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has noted that there often is great similarity between parents' work and children's roles. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley CA, 1983), p. 156.
88. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "Rivalry and Competition," in Guidance of Childhood and Youth: Readings in Child Study, Compiled by the Child Study Association of America, ed. Benjamin C. Gruenberg (New York, 1926), pp. 95-98. Douglas A. Thom, Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child (New York, 1929),pp. 179-181. See also Charles Germane and Edith Gayton Germane, Character Training: A Program for the Home (New York, 1929) pp. 68-69; Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys (Chicago, 1934), pp. 52-56. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has noted that there often is great similarity between parents' work and children's roles. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley CA, 1983), p. 156.
89. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "Rivalry and Competition," in Guidance of Childhood and Youth: Readings in Child Study, Compiled by the Child Study Association of America, ed. Benjamin C. Gruenberg (New York, 1926), pp. 95-98. Douglas A. Thom, Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child (New York, 1929),pp. 179-181. See also Charles Germane and Edith Gayton Germane, Character Training: A Program for the Home (New York, 1929) pp. 68-69; Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys (Chicago, 1934), pp. 52-56. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has noted that there often is great similarity between parents' work and children's roles. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley CA, 1983), p. 156.
90. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, "Rivalry and Competition," in Guidance of Childhood and Youth: Readings in Child Study, Compiled by the Child Study Association of America, ed. Benjamin C. Gruenberg (New York, 1926), pp. 95-98. Douglas A. Thom, Everyday Problems of the Everyday Child (New York, 1929),pp. 179-181. See also Charles Germane and Edith Gayton Germane, Character Training: A Program for the Home (New York, 1929) pp. 68-69; Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys (Chicago, 1934), pp. 52-56. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has noted that there often is great similarity between parents' work and children's roles. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling (Berkeley CA, 1983), p. 156.
91. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys ( Chicago, 1934 ),pp. 1,44,48. "A Grandmother Talks about Picking Toys," ed. by M. Harrington, American Magazine, 114 (December 1932), pp. 44-45, 87-89. For another example of the new valuation of toys, see Minnetta Samis Leonard, Best Toys for Children and Their Selection (Madison, Wis.; Prepared for the Wisconsin Kindergarten Association, c. 1925), pp. 5, 8, 9-10. This new faith in toys is consistent with trends Lisa Jacobson described. She argues that experts of the 1920s "envisioned play as a positive force in children's lives ... as an essential element of child development, personal growth, and happiness." According to Jacobson, children's play in the house was supposed to offset the passive and corrupting amusements available outside of the home. See Lisa Jacobson, "Revitalizing the American Home: Children's Leisure and the Revaluation of Play, 1920-1940,"Journal of Social History, 30 (Spring 1997): pp. 581-596.
92. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys ( Chicago, 1934 ),pp. 1,44,48. "A Grandmother Talks about Picking Toys," ed. by M. Harrington, American Magazine, 114 (December 1932), pp. 44-45, 87-89. For another example of the new valuation of toys, see Minnetta Samis Leonard, Best Toys for Children and Their Selection (Madison, Wis.; Prepared for the Wisconsin Kindergarten Association, c. 1925), pp. 5, 8, 9-10. This new faith in toys is consistent with trends Lisa Jacobson described. She argues that experts of the 1920s "envisioned play as a positive force in children's lives ... as an essential element of child development, personal growth, and happiness." According to Jacobson, children's play in the house was supposed to offset the passive and corrupting amusements available outside of the home. See Lisa Jacobson, "Revitalizing the American Home: Children's Leisure and the Revaluation of Play, 1920-1940,"Journal of Social History, 30 (Spring 1997): pp. 581-596.
93. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys ( Chicago, 1934 ),pp. 1,44,48. "A Grandmother Talks about Picking Toys," ed. by M. Harrington, American Magazine, 114 (December 1932), pp. 44-45, 87-89. For another example of the new valuation of toys, see Minnetta Samis Leonard, Best Toys for Children and Their Selection (Madison, Wis.; Prepared for the Wisconsin Kindergarten Association, c. 1925), pp. 5, 8, 9-10. This new faith in toys is consistent with trends Lisa Jacobson described. She argues that experts of the 1920s "envisioned play as a positive force in children's lives ... as an essential element of child development, personal growth, and happiness." According to Jacobson, children's play in the house was supposed to offset the passive and corrupting amusements available outside of the home. See Lisa Jacobson, "Revitalizing the American Home: Children's Leisure and the Revaluation of Play, 1920-1940,"Journal of Social History, 30 (Spring 1997): pp. 581-596.
94. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys ( Chicago, 1934 ),pp. 1,44,48. "A Grandmother Talks about Picking Toys," ed. by M. Harrington, American Magazine, 114 (December 1932), pp. 44-45, 87-89. For another example of the new valuation of toys, see Minnetta Samis Leonard, Best Toys for Children and Their Selection (Madison, Wis.; Prepared for the Wisconsin Kindergarten Association, c. 1925), pp. 5, 8, 9-10. This new faith in toys is consistent with trends Lisa Jacobson described. She argues that experts of the 1920s "envisioned play as a positive force in children's lives ... as an essential element of child development, personal growth, and happiness." According to Jacobson, children's play in the house was supposed to offset the passive and corrupting amusements available outside of the home. See Lisa Jacobson, "Revitalizing the American Home: Children's Leisure and the Revaluation of Play, 1920-1940,"Journal of Social History, 30 (Spring 1997): pp. 581-596.
95. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
96. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
97. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
98. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
99. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
100. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
101. Sidonie Matsner Gruenberg and Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Parents, Children, and Money: Learning to Spend, Save, and Earn (New York, 1933), pp. 8-9; Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion (New York, 1989), p. 94; Stearns, "Girls, Boys, and Emotions, pp. 36-74; Steams, "Sibling Jealousy in the Twentieth Century," pp. 193-222; Stearns, "Consumerism and Childhood," pp. 396-413. Ethel Kawin, The Wise Choice of Toys, p. 48. Sybil Foster, "A Study Of The Personality Make-Up And Social Setting of Fifty Jealous Children," p. 73.
102. Quoted in David L. Cohn, The Good Old Days, p. 576.