Affective disorders in the aftermath of miscarriage: A comprehensive review

Archives of Women's Mental Health

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 129-149

  Klier, C M ^a   Geller, P A ^b   Ritsher, J B ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^b DREXEL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attachment; Depression; Grief; Miscarriage; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

CONTROLLED STUDY; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOOD DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLICATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; SUBFERTILITY; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TREATMENT INDICATION;

ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MOOD DISORDERS; OBJECT ATTACHMENT; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME;

EID: 0036861366     PISSN: 14341816     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00737-002-0146-2     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Abel EL (1997) Maternal alcohol consumption and spontaneous abortion. Alcohol Alcohol 32: 211-219.
2. Agterberg G, Hunfeld JA, Wladimiroff JW, Passchier J (1997) Mothers' trait anxiety and adaptation to an infant born subsequent to the loss of a late pregnancy. Psychol Rep 80: 216-218.
3. American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn., revised. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, D.C.
4. th Edn., American Psychiatric Association, Washington, D.C.
5. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mock J, Erbaugh J (1961) An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 4: 561-571.
6. Bergant AM, Reinstadler K, Moncayo HE, Solder E, Heim K, Ulmer H, Hinterhuber H, Dapunt O (1997) Spontaneous abortion and psychosomatics. A prospective study on the impact of psychological factors as a cause for recurrent spontaneous abortion. Hum Reprod 12: 1106-1110.
7. Beutel M, Deckardt R, von Rad M, Weiner H (1995a) Grief and depression after miscarriage: Their separation, antecedents, and course. Psychosom Med 57: 517-526.
8. Beutel M, Will H, Volkl K, von Rad M, Weiner H (1995b) Assessment of grief after pregnancy loss: Development and initial results on the validity of the Munich Grief Scale. Psychother Psychosom Med Psychol 45: 295-302.
9. Beutel M, Willner H, Deckardt R, von Rad M. Weiner H (1996a) Similarities and differences in couples' grief reactions following a miscarriage: results from a longitudinal study. J Psychosom Res 40: 245-253.
10. Beutel M (1996b) Der frühe Verlust eines Kindes. Bewältigung und Hilfe bei Fehl-Totgeburt und Fehlbildung. Hogrefe-Verlag, Göttingen.
11. Black RB (1991) Women's voices after pregnancy loss: Couples' patterns of communication and support. Soc Work Health Care 16(2): 19-36.
12. Blumenfeld Z. Brenner B (1999) Thrombophilia-associated pregnancy wastage. Fertil Steril 72: 765-774.
13. Borja-Aburto VH, Hertz-Picciotto I, Rojas Lopez M, Farias P, Rios C, Blanco J (1999) Blood lead levels measured prospectively and risk of spontaneous abortion. Am J Epidemiol 150: 590-597.
14. Bowlby J (1969) Attachment and Loss, vol. I: Attachment. Basic Books, New York.
15. Bowlby J (1980) Attachment and Loss: Vol. 3: Loss: Sadness and depression. Basic Books, New York.
16. Boyle FM, Vance JC, Najman JM, Thearle MJ (1996) The mental health impact of stillbirth, neonatal death or SIDS: Prevalence and patterns of distress among mothers. Soc Sci Med 43: 1273-1282.
17. Brier N (1999) Understanding and managing the emotional reactions to a miscarriage. Obstet Gynecol 93: 151-155.
18. Brockington IF (1996) Motherhood and mental health. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 74.
19. Brooke OG, Anderson HR, Bland JM, Peacock JL, Stewart CM (1989) Effects on birthweight of smoking, alcohol, caffeine, socioeconomic factors, and psychosocial stress. BMJ 298: 795-801.
20. Bussen S, Sutterlin M, Steck T (1999) Endocrine abnormalities during the follicular phase in women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Hum Reprod 14: 18-20.
21. Cain AC, Erikson ME, Fast I, Vaughan RA (1964) Children's disturbed reaction to their mothers' miscarriage. Psychosom Med 24: 58-66.
22. Carp H, Toder V, Aviram A, Daniely M, Mashiach S, Barkai G (2001) Karyotype of the abortus in recurrent miscarriage. Fertil Steril 75: 678-682.
23. Carrera L, Diez-Domingo J, Montanana V, Monleon Sancho J, Minguez J, Monleon J (1998) Depression in women suffering perinatal loss. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 62: 149-153.
24. Castille DM, Neugebauer R, Geller PA (in preparation) Determinants of anxiety symptoms After miscarriage assessed with the Composite Anxiety Symptom Scale (CASS).
25. Cecil R, Leslie JC (1993) Early miscarriage: Preliminary results from a study in Northern Ireland. J Reprod Infant Psychol 11: 89-95.
26. Clarke M, Williams AJ (1979) Depression in women after perinatal death. Lancet 1: 916-917.
27. Clayton P (1982) Bereavement. In: Paykel ES (ed), Handbook of affective disorders. Churchill Livingstone, New York.
28. Clayton P (1998) The model of stress: the bereavement reaction. In: Dohrenwend BP (ed), Adversity, stress, and psychopathology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 96-110.
29. Cordle CJ, Prettyman RJ (1994) A two year follow-up of women who have experienced early miscarriage. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12: 37-43.
30. Cotzias CS, Paterson-Brown S, Fisk NM (1999) Prospective risk of unexplained stillbirth in singleton pregnancies at term: Population based analysis. BMJ 319: 287-288.
31. Cuisinier M, Janssen H, de Graauw C, Bakker S, Hoogduin C (1996) Pregnancy following miscarriage: Course of grief and some determining factors. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 17: 168-174.
32. Cumings D (1984) The effects of miscarriage on a man. Emotional First Aid 1: 47-50.
33. Cummings EM, Davies PT (1994) Maternal depression and child development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 35: 73-112.
34. Davis DL, Stewart M, Harmon RJ (1989) Postponing pregnancy after perinatal death: Perspectives on doctor advice. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28: 481-487.
35. Derogatis LR (1975) The SCL-90-R. Clinical Psychometric Research, Baltimore.
36. Derogatis LR, Lipman RS, Covi L (1973) SCL-90: An outpatient psychiatric rating scale - Preliminary report. Psychopharmacol Bull 9: 13-27.
37. D'Ubaldo C, Pezzotti P, Rezza G, Branca M, Ippolito G (1998) Association between HIV-1 infection and miscarriage: a retrospective study. DIANAIDS Collaborative Study Group. Diagnosi Iniziale Anomalie Neoplastiche AIDS. AIDS 12: 1087-1093.
38. Elders MA (1995) Theory and present thinking in bereavement. Issues Psychoanalytic Psychol 17: 67-83.
39. Emmer PM, Nelen WL, Steegers EA, Hendriks JC, Veerhoek M, Joosten I (2000) Peripheral natural killer cytotoxicity and CD56(pos)CD16(pos) cells increase during early pregnancy in women with a history of recurrent spontaneous abortion. Hum Reprod 15: 1163-1169.
40. Forrest GC, Standish E, Baum JD (1982) Support after perinatal death: A study of support and counselling after perinatal bereavement. BMJ 285: 1475-1479.
41. Franche RL, Bulow C (1999) The impact of a subsequent pregnancy on grief and emotional adjustment following a perinatal loss. Infant Mental Health J 20: 175-187.
42. Franche RL, Mikail SF (1999) The impact of perinatal loss on adjustment to subsequent pregnancy. Soc Sci Med 48: 1613-1623.
43. Friedman T, Gath D (1989) The psychiatric consequences of spontaneous abortion. Br J Psychiatry 155: 810-813.
44. Frost M, Condon JT (1996) The psychological sequelae of miscarriage: A critical review of the literature. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 30: 54-62.
45. Gannon K (1994) Psychological factors in the aetiology and treatment of recurrent miscarriage. A review and critique. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12: 55-64.
46. Garel M, Blondel B, Lelong N, Papin C, Bonenfant S, Kaminsky M (1992) Reactions depressive apresune fausse-couche. Contracept Fertil Sex 20: 75-81.
47. Garel M, Blondel B, Lelong N, Bonenfant S, Kaminski M (1994) Long-term consequences of miscarriage: The depressive disorders and the following pregnancy. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12: 233-240.
48. Geerinck-Vercammen CR (1999) With a positive feeling: The grief process after stillbirth in relation to the role of the professional caregivers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 87: 119-121.
49. Geller PA, Kerns D, Klier CM (2002) Anxiety following miscarriage and the subsequent pregnancy: A review of the literature and future directions. J Psychosom Res (in press)
50. Gissler M, Hemminki E, Lonnqvist J (1996) Suicides after pregnancy in Finland, 1987-94: register linkage study. BMJ 313: 1431-1434.
51. Goldbach KR, Dunn DS, Toedter LJ, Lasker JN (1991) The effects of gestational age and gender on grief after pregnancy loss. Am J Orthopsychiatry 61: 461-467.
52. Goldberg DP (1972) The Detection of Psychiatric Illness by Questionnaire. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
53. Hughes P, Turton P, Evans CD (1999) Stillbirth as a risk factor for depression and anxiety in the subsequent pregnancy: Cohort study. BMJ 318: 1721-1724.
54. Hughes P, Turton P, Hopper E, McGauley GA, Fonagy P (2001) Disorganised attachment behaviour among infants born subsequent to stillbirth. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42: 791-801.
55. Hunfeld JA, Taselaar-Kloos AK, Agterberg G, Wladimiroff JW, Passchier J (1997) Trait anxiety, negative emotions and the mothers' adaptation to an infant born subsequent to late pregnancy loss: Case-control study. Prenat Diagn 17:843-851.
56. Hutti MH (1992) Parents' perceptions of the miscarriage experience. Death Studies 16: 401-415.
57. Jacobs J, Harvey J (2000) Evaluation of an Australian miscarriage support programme. Br J Nurs 9: 22-26.
58. Jacobs S, Kosten TR, Kasl SV, Ostfeld AM, Berkman L, Charpentier P (1987) Attachment theory and multiple dimensions of grief. J Death Dying 18: 41-52.
59. Jacobs S, Hansen F, Kasl S, Ostfeld A, Berkman L, Kim K (1990) Anxiety disorders during acute bereavement: Risk and risk factors. J Clin Psychiatry 51: 269-274.
60. Janssen HJ, Cuisinier MC, Hoogduin KA (1996a) A critical review of the concept of pathological grief following pregnancy loss. J Death Dying 33: 21-42.
61. Janssen HJ, Cuisinier MC, Hoogduin KA, de Graauw KP (1996b) Controlled prospective study on the mental health of women following pregnancy loss. Am J Psychiatry 153: 226-230.
62. Janssen HJ, Cuisinier MC, de Graauw KP, Hoogduin KA (1997) A prospective study of risk factors predicting grief intensity following pregnancy loss. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54: 56-61.
63. Johnson MP, Puddifoot JE (1996) The grief response in the partners of women who miscarry. Br J Med Psychol 69: 313-327.
64. Kaider AS, Kaider BD, Janowicz PB, Roussev RG (1999) Immunodiagnostic evaluation in women with reproductive failure. Am J Reprod Immunol 42: 335-346.
65. Kennell JH, Slyter H, Klaus MH (1970) The mourning response of parents to the death of a newborn infant. N Engl J Med 283: 344-349.
66. Kirkley-Best E (1981) Grief in response to prenatal loss: An argument for the earliest maternal attachment. Diss Abstr Int 42(B): 2560.
67. Klier CM, Geller PA, Neugebauer R (2000) Minor depressive disorder in the context of miscarriage. J Affect Disord 59: 13-21.
68. Kline J, Stein Z, Susser M (1989) Conception to Birth: Epidemiology of Prenatal Development. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 43-68.
69. Kline J, Levin B, Silverman J, Kinney A, Stein Z, Susser M, Warburton D (1991) Caffeine and spontaneous abortion of known karyotype. Epidemiology 2: 409-417.
70. Kline J, Levin B, Kinney A, Stein Z, Susser M, Warburton D (1995) Cigarette smoking and spontaneous abortion of known karyotype. Precise data but uncertain inferences. Am J Epidemiol 141: 417-427.
71. Klock SC, Chang G, Hiley A, Hill J (1997) Psychological distress among women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. Psychosomatics 38: 503-507.
72. Lapple M (1989) Pilot study on assessing medical, psychological, and psychosocial factors in stillbirth and spontaneous abortion and recurrent abortion. Wien Klin Wochenschr 101: 666-673.
73. Lee C, Slade P (1996) Miscarriage as a traumatic event: A review of the literature and new implications for intervention. J Psychosom Res 40: 235-244.
74. Lee C, Slade P, Lygo V (1996) The influence of psychological debriefing on emotional adaptation in women following early miscarriage: A preliminary study. Br J Med Psychol 69: 47-58.
75. Lee DT, Wong CK, Cheung LP, Leung HC, Haines CJ, Chung TK (1997) Psychiatric morbidity following miscarriage: A prevalence study of Chinese women in Hong Kong. J Affect Disord 43: 63-68.
76. Leon IG (1987) Short-term psychotherapy for perinatal loss. Psychotherapy 24: 187-195.
77. Leppert PC, Pahlka BS (1984) Grieving characteristics after spontaneous abortion: A management approach. Obstet Gynecol 64: 119-122.
78. Levin AA, Schoenbaum SC, Monson RR, Stubblefield PG, Ryan KJ (1980) Association of induced abortion with subsequent pregnancy. JAMA 243: 2495-2499.
79. Lewis E (1979) Inhibition of mourning by pregnancy: Psychopathology and management. BMJ 2: 27-28.
80. Lin SX, Lasker JN (1996) Patterns of grief reaction after pregnancy loss. Am J Orthopsychiatry 66: 262-271.
81. Lobel M (1994) Conceptualizations, measurement and effects of prenatal maternal stress on birth outcomes. J Behav Med 17: 225-272.
82. Maccarrone M, Valensise H, Bari M, Lazzarin N, Romanini C, Finazzi-Agro A (2000) Relation between decreased anandamide hydrolase concentrations in human lymphocytes and miscarriage. Lancet 355: 1326-1329.
83. Marcus M, McChesney R, Golden A, Landrigan P (2000) Video display terminals and miscarriage. J Am Med Womens Assoc 55: 84-88, 105.
84. McDonald AD, Armstrong B, Cherry NM, Delorme C, Diodati-Nolin A, McDonald JC, Robert D (1986) Spontaneous abortion and occupation. J Occup Med 28: 1232-1238.
85. Mecacci F, Parretti E, Cioni R, Lucchetti R, Magrini A, La Torre P, Mignosa M, Acanfora L, Mello G (2000) Thyroid autoimmunity and its association with non-organ-specific antibodies and subclinical alterations of thyroid function in women with a history of pregnancy loss or preeclampsia. J Reprod Immunol 46: 39-50.
86. Mishell DR Jr (1993) Recurrent abortion. J Reprod Med 38: 250- 259.
87. Nelen WL, Blom HJ, Steegers EA, den Heijer M, Thomas CM, Eskes TK (2000) Homocysteine and folate levels as risk factors for recurrent early pregnancy loss. Obstet Gynecol 95: 519-524.
88. Ness RB, Grisso JA, Hirschinger N, Markovic N, Shaw LM, Day NL, Kline J (1999) Cocaine and tobacco use and the risk of spontaneous abortion. N Engl J Med 340: 333-339.
89. Neugebauer R, Kline J, O'Connor P, Shrout P, Johnson J, Skodol A, Wicks J, Susser M (1992a) Depressive symptoms in women in the six months after miscarriage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166(1Pt1): 104-109.
90. Neugebauer R, Kline J, O'Connor P, Shrout P, Johnson J, Skodol A, Wicks J, Sussser M (1992b) Determinants of depressive symptoms in the early weeks after miscarriage. Am J Public Health 82: 1332-1339.
91. Neugebauer R, Kline J, Stein Z, Shrout P, Warburton D, Susser M (1996) Association of stressful life events with chromosomally normal spontaneous abortion. Am J Epidemiol 143: 588-596.
92. Neugebauer R, Kline J, Shrout P, Skodol A, O'Connor P, Geller PA, Stein Z, Susser M (1997) Major depressive disorder in the 6 months after miscarriage. JAMA 277: 383-388.
93. Neugebauer R, Baxi L, Markowitz J, Kline J, Bleiberg K, Ferro T, Skodol A (2001) Randomized controlled trial of time-limited, telephone administered bereavement counseling following miscarriage. Arch Womens Ment Health 3(Suppl 2): 44.
94. Nielsen S, Hahlin M, Moller A, Granberg S (1996) Bereavement, grieving and psychological morbidity after first trimester spontaneous abortion: Comparing expectant management with surgical evacuation. Hum Reprod 11: 1767-1770.
95. Nikcevic AV, Snijders R, Nicolaides KH, Kupek E (1999a) Some psychometric properties of the Texas Grief Inventory adjusted for miscarriage. Br J Med Psychol 72: 171-178.
96. Nikcevic AV, Tunkel SA, Kuczmierczyk AR, Nicolaides KH (1999b) Investigation of the cause of miscarriage and its influence on women's psychological distress. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 106: 808-813.
97. Nybo Andersen AM, Wohlfahrt J, Christens P, Olsen J, Melbye M (2000) Maternal age and fetal loss: Population based register linkage study. BMJ 320: 1708-1712.
98. O'Leary JM, Thorwick C (1997) Impact of pregnancy loss on subsequent pregnancy. In: Woods JR, Woods JLE (eds), Loss During Pregnancy or in the Newborn Period. Jannetti Publications, New Jersey, pp 431-451.
99. Overpeck MD, Brenner RA, Cosgrove C, Trumble AC, Kochanek K, MacDorman M (2002) National underascertainment of sudden unexpected infant deaths associated with deaths of unknown causes. Pediatrics 109: 274-283.
100. Peppers LG, Knapp RJ (1980) Maternal reactions to involuntary fetal/infant death. Psychiatry 43: 155-159.
101. Perkin MR, Bland JM, Peacock JL, Anderson HR (1993) The effect of anxiety and depression during pregnancy on obstetric complications. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 100: 629-634.
102. Potvin L, Lasker JN, Toedter LJ (1989) Measuring grief: A short version of the Perinatal Grief Scale. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 11: 29-45.
103. Prettyman RJ, Cordle CJ, Cook GD (1993) A three-month follow-up of psychological morbidity after early miscarriage. Br J Med Psychol 66: 363-372.
104. Prigerson HG, Frank E, Kasl SV, Reynolds CF III, Anderson B, Zubenko GS, Houck PR, George CJ, Kupfer DJ (1995) Complicated grief and bereavement-related depression as distinct disorders: Preliminary empirical validation in elderly bereaved spouses. Am J Psychiatry 152: 22-30.
105. Prigerson HG, Shear MK, Jacobs SC, Reynolds CF 3rd, Maciejewski PK, Davidson JR, Rosenheck R, Pilkonis PA, Wortman CB, Williams JB, Widiger TA, Frank E, Kupfer DJ, Zisook S (1999) Consensus criteria for traumatic grief. A preliminary empirical test. Br J Psychiatry 174: 67-73.
106. Radloff LS (1977) The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1: 385-401.
107. Rai R, Backos M, Rushworth F, Regan L (2000) Polycystic ovaries and recurrent miscarriage - A reappraisal. Hum Reprod 15: 612-615.
108. Raziel A, Friedler S, Schachter M, Strassburger D, Ron-El R (2000) Successful pregnancy after 24 consecutive fetal losses: Lessons learned from surrogacy. Fertil Steril 74: 104-106.
109. th Convention of the American Association of Behavior Therapy, November 19, 2000, New Orleans.
110. Ritsher JB, Neugebauer R (2001) Mourning and miscarriage: The cardinal role of yearning for the lost child in the grief process following reproductive loss. Presented at the First World Congress on Women's Mental Health, March, 2001, Berlin.
111. Ritsher JB, Neugebauer R (2002) Perinatal Bereavement Grief Scale: Distinguishing grief from depression following miscarriage. Assessment 9: 31-40.
112. Robinson GE, Stirtzinger R, Stewart DE, Ralevski E (1994) Psychological reactions in women followed for 1 year after miscarriage. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12: 31-36.
113. Robinson M, Baker L, Nackerud L (1999) The relationship of attachment theory and perinatal loss. Death Stud 23: 257-270.
114. Rud B, Klunder K (1985) The course of pregnancy following spontaneous abortion. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 64: 277-278.
115. Saraiya M, Green CA, Berg CJ, Hopkins FW, Koonin LM, Atrash HK (1999) Spontaneous abortion - Related deaths among women in the United States - 1981-1991. Obstet Gynecol 94: 172-176.
116. Seibel M, Graves WL (1980) The psychological implications of spontaneous abortions. J Reprod Med 25: 161-165.
117. Shapiro S (1988) Infertility and pregnancy loss. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
118. Slade P (1994) Predicting the psychological impact of miscarriage. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12: 5-16.
119. Stern JJ, Dorfmann AD, Gutierrez-Najar AJ, Cerrillo M, Coulam CB (1996) Frequency of abnormal karyotypes among abortuses from women with and without a history of recurrent spontaneous abortion. Fertil Steril 65: 250-253.
120. Stirtzinger RM, Robinson GE (1989) The psychological effects of spontaneous abortion. CMAJ 140: 799-801, 805.
121. Stirtzinger RM, Robinson GE, Stewart DE, Ralevski E (1999) Parameters of grieving in spontaneous abortion. Int J Psychiatry Med 29: 235-249.
122. Stray-Pedersen B, Stray-Pedersen S (1984) Etiologic factors and subsequent reproductive performance in 195 couples with a prior history of habitual abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 148: 140-146.
123. Stray-Pedersen B, Stray-Pedersen S (1988) Recurrent abortion: the role of psychotherapy. In: Beard RW, Sharp F (eds), Early Pregnancy Loss: Mechanisms and Treatment. Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynecology, London.
124. Surtees PG (1995) In the shadow of adversity: The evolution and resolution of anxiety and depressive disorder. Br J Psychiatry 166: 583-594.
125. Swanson KM (2000) Predicting depressive symptoms after miscarriage: A path analysis based on the Lazarus paradigm. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 9: 191-206.
126. Thapar AK, Thapar A (1992) Psychological sequelae of miscarriage: A controlled study using the general health questionnaire and the hospital anxiety and depression scale. Br J Gen Pract 42(356): 94-96.
127. Tharapel AT, Tharapel SA, Bannerman RM (1985) Recurrent pregnancy losses and parental chromosome abnormalities: A review. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 92: 899-914.
128. Theut SK, Pedersen FA, Zaslow MJ, Rabinovich BA (1988) Pregnancy subsequent to perinatal loss: Parental anxiety and depression. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27: 289-292.
129. Theut SK, Pedersen FA, Zaslow MJ, Cain RL, Rabinovich BA, Morihisa JM (1989) Perinatal loss and parental bereavement. Am J Psychiatry 146: 635-639.
130. Theut SK, Zaslow MJ, Rabinovich BA, Bartko JJ, Morihisa JM (1990) Resolution of parental bereavement after a perinatal loss. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29: 521-525.
131. Theut SK, Moss HA, Zaslow MJ, Rabinovich BA, Levin L, Bartko JJ (1992) Perinatal loss and maternal attitudes toward the subsequent child. Infant Mental Health J 13: 157-166.
132. Toedter LJ, Lasker JN, Alhadeff JM (1988) The Perinatal Grief Scale: Development and initial validation. Am J Orthopsychiatry 58: 435-449.
133. Tunaley JR, Slade P, Duncan SB (1993) Cognitive processes in psychological adaptation to miscarriage: A preliminary report. Psychol Health 8: 369-381.
134. Tupper C, Weil J (1962) The problem of spontaneous abortion ix: The treatment of habitual aborters by psychotherapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 83: 421-424.
135. Vance JC, Boyle FM, Najman JM, Thearle MJ (1995) Gender differences in parental psychological distress following perinatal death or sudden infant death syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 167: 806-811.
136. Vlaanderen W, Fabriek LM, van Tuyll van Serooskerken C (1988) Abortion risk and pregnancy interval. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 67: 139-140.
137. von Zerssen D (1986) Clinical self-rating scales (CSRS) of the Munich Psychiatric Information System (PSYCHIS Munchen). In: Sartorius N, Ban TA (eds), Assessment of Depression. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York.
138. Wadhwa PD, Sandman CA, Porto M, Dunkel-Schetter C, Garite TJ (1993) The association between prenatal stress and infant birth weight and gestational age at birth: A prospective investigation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 169: 858-865.
139. Wilson AL, Soule DJ, Fenton LJ (1988) The next baby: Parents' responses to perinatal experiences subsequent to a stillbirth. J Perinatol 8: 188-192.
140. Wyss P, Biedermann K, Huch A (1994) Relevance of the miscarriage-new pregnancy interval. J Perinat Med 22: 235-241.
141. Yudkin P, Redman C (2000) Prospective risk of stillbirth. Impending fetal death must be identified and pre-empted. BMJ 320: 445-446.
142. Zeanah CH, Harmon RJ (1995) Perinatal loss and infant mental health: An introduction. Infant Mental Health J 16: 76-79.
143. Zigmond AS, Snaith RP (1983) The hospital anxiety and depression scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 67: 361-370.
144. Zisook S, Devaul RA, Click MA Jr. (1982) Measuring symptoms of grief and bereavement. Am J Psychiatry 139: 1590-1593.
145. Zuckerman B, Amaro A, Bauchner H, Cabral H (1989) Depressive symptoms during pregnancy: Relationship to poor health behaviors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 160: 1107-1111.