Biodiversity and ecosystem function: The consumer connection

Oikos

Volumn 99, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 201-219

  Duffy, J Emmett ^a  

^a VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION; EXTINCTION RISK; FOOD WEB; TROPHIC LEVEL;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 0036857236     PISSN: 00301299     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.990201.x     Document Type: Short Survey

References (155)

1. Agrawal, A. A. 1998. Algal defense, grazers, and their interactions in aquatic trophic cascades. - Acta Oecologia 19: 331-337.
2. Allison, G. W., Menge, B. A., Lubchenco, J. and Navarrete, S. A. 1995. Predictability and uncertainty in community regulation: Consequences of reduced consumer diversity in coastal rocky ecosystems. - In: Mooney, H. A., Cushman, J. H., Medina, E. et al. (eds), Functional Roles of Biodiversity: A Global Perspective. John Wiley and Sons, pp. 371-392.
3. Alroy, J. 2001. A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal extinction. - Science 292: 1893-1896.
4. Berlow, E. L. 1999. Strong effects of weak interactions in ecological communities. - Nature 398: 330-334.
5. Berlow, E. L., Navarrete, S. A., Briggs, C. J. et al. 1999. Quantifying variation in the strengths of species interactions. - Ecology 80: 2206-2224.
6. Botsford, L. W., Castilla, J. C. and Peterson, C. H. 1997. The management of fisheries and marine ecosystems. - Science 277: 509-515.
7. Brett, M. T. and Goldman, C. R. 1996. A meta-analysis of the freshwater trophic cascade. - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 7723-7726.
8. Brown, J. H., Whitham, T. G., Morgan, S. K. et al. 2001. Complex species interactions and the dynamics of ecological systems: Long-term experiments. - Science 293: 643-650.
9. Bruno, J. F. and Bertness, M. D. 2001. Habitat modification and facilitation in benthic marine communities. - In: Bertness, M. D., Gaines, S. D. and Hay, M. E. (eds), Marine Community Ecology. Sinauer, pp. 201-218.
10. Carpenter, R. C. 1990. Mass mortality of Diadema antillarum. I. Long-term effects on sea urchin population-dynamics and coral reef algal communities. - Mar. Biol. 104: 67-77.
11. Carpenter, S. R., Kitchell, J. F. and Hodgson, J. R. 1985. Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. -BioScience 35: 634-639.
12. Carpenter, S. R., Kitchell, J. F., Hodgson, J. R. et al. 1987. Regulation of lake primary productivity by food web structure. - Ecology 68: 1863-1876.
13. Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations. With emphasis on Himalayan Thar in New Zealand. - Ecology 51: 53-72.
14. Chapin, F. S. III, Walker, B. H., Hobbs, R. J. et al. 1997. Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. - Science 277: 500-504.
15. Chase, J. M. 2000. Are there real differences among aquatic and terrestrial food webs? - Trends Ecol. Evol. 15: 408-412.
16. Cohen, J. E., Pimm, S. L., Yodzis, P. and Saldaña, J. 1993. Body sizes of animal predators and animal prey in food webs. - J. Anim. Ecol. 62: 67-78.
17. Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. - Science 199: 1302-1310.
18. Cottingham, K. L., Brown, B. L. and Lennon, J. T. 2001. Biodiversity may regulate the temporal variability of ecological systems. - Ecol. Lett. 4: 72-85.
19. Crooks, K. R. and Soulé, M. E. 1999. Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system. - Nature 400: 563-566.
20. Davies, K. F., Margules, C. R. and Lawrence, J. F. 2000. Which traits of species predict population declines in experimental forest fragments? - Ecology 81: 1450-1461.
21. Dayton, P. K., Tegner, M. J., Edwards, P. B. and Riser, K. L. 1998. Sliding baselines, ghosts, and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities. - Ecol. Appl. 8: 309-322.
22. Díaz, S., Cabida, M. and Casanoves, F. 1999. Functional implications of trait-environment linkages in plant communities. - In: Weiher, E. and Keddy, P. (eds), Ecological assembly rules. Perspectives, advances, retreats. Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 338-362.
23. Diehl, S. 1993. Relative consumer sizes and the strengths of direct and indirect interactions in omnivorous feeding relationships. - Oikos 68: 151-157.
24. Doak, D. F., Bigger, D., Harding, E. K. et al. 1998. The statistical inevitability of stability-diversity relationships in community ecology. - Am. Nat. 151: 264-276.
25. Downing, A. L. and Leibold, M. A. 2002. Ecosystem consequences of species richness and composition in pond food webs. - Nature 416: 837-840.
26. Duffy, J. E. and Hay, M. E. 2000. Strong impacts of grazing amphipods on the organization of a benthic community. -Ecol. Monogr. 70: 237-263.
27. Duffy, J. E. and Hay, M. E. 2001. The ecology and evolution of marine consumer-prey interactions. - In: Bertness, M. D., Hay, M. E. and Gaines, S. D. (eds), Marine community ecology. Sinauer Associates, pp. 131-157.
28. Duffy, J. E., Macdonald, K. S., Rhode, J. M. and Parker, J. D. 2001. Grazer diversity, functional redundancy, and productivity in seagrass beds: An experimental test. - Ecology 82: 2417-2434.
29. Duggins, D. O., Simenstad, C. A. and Estes, J. A. 1989. Magnification of secondary production by kelp detritus in coastal marine ecosystems. - Science 245: 170-173.
30. Elser, J. J., Luecke, C., Brett, M. T. and Goldman, C. R. 1995. Effects of food web compensation after manipulation of rainbow trout in an oligotrophic lake. - Ecology 76: 52-69.
31. Elton, C. 1927. Animal Ecology. - Sidgwick and Jackson.
32. Elton, C. S. 1958. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. - Methuen.
33. Estes, J. A. 1995. Top-level carnivores and ecosystem effects. In: Jones, C. G. and Lawton, J. H. (eds), Linking Species and Ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, pp. 151-158.
34. Estes, J. A. and Palmisano, J. F. 1974. Sea otters: Their role in structuring nearshore communities. - Science 185: 1058-1060.
35. Estes, J. A. and Duggins, D. O. 1995. Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: Generality and variation in a community paradigm. - Ecol. Monogr. 65: 75-100.
36. Estes, J. A., Tinker, M. T., Williams, T. M. and Doak, D. F. 1998. Killer whale predation on sea otters linking oceanic and nearshore ecosystems. - Science 282: 473-476.
37. Fridley, J. D. 2001. The influence of species diversity on ecosystem productivity: How, where, and why? - Oikos 93: 514-526.
38. Frost, T. M., Carpenter, S. R., Ives, A. R. and Kratz, T. K. 1995. Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem function. - In: Jones, C. G. and Lawton, J. H. (eds), Linking species and ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, pp. 224-239.
39. Godfray, H. C. J., Lewis, O. O. and Memmott, J. 1999. Studying insect diversity in the tropics. - Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 354: 1811-1824.
40. Goodman, D. 1975. The theory of diversity-stability relationships in ecology. - Q. Rev. Biol. 50: 237-266.
41. Grime, J. P. 1998. Essay review: Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: Immediate filter and founder effects. - J. Ecol. 86:902-910.
42. Hairston, N. G., Smith, F. E. and Slobodkin, L. G. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. - Am. Nat. 94: 421-425.
43. Halaj, J. and Wise, D. H. 2001. Terrestrial trophic cascades: How much do they trickle? - Am. Nat. 157: 262-281.
44. Hall, S. J. and Raffaelli, D. G. 1993. Food Webs: Theory and reality. - In: Begon, M. and Fitter, A. H. (eds), Advances in Ecological Research. Academic Press, pp. 187-239.
45. Hansen, B., Bjørnsen, P. K. and Hansen, P. J. 1994. The size ratio between planktonic predators and their prey. - Limnol. Oceanogr. 39: 395-403.
46. Havens, K. 1992. Scale and structure in natural food webs. - Science 257: 1107-1110.
47. Hawkins, B. A. 1992. Parasitoid-host food webs and donor control. - Oikos 65: 159-162.
48. Hawkins, B. A., Mills, N. J., Jervis, M. A. and Price, P. W. 1999. Is the biological control of insects a natural phenomenon? - Oikos 86: 493-506.
49. Hay, M. E. 1984a. Patterns of fish and urchin grazing on Caribbean coral reefs: Are previous results typical? - Ecology 65: 446-454.
50. Hay, M. E. 1984b. Predictable spatial escapes from herbivory: How do these affect the evolution of herbivore resistance in tropical marine communities? - Oecologia 64: 396-407.
51. Hay, M. E. 1991. Marine-terrestrial contrasts in the ecology of plant chemical defenses against herbivores. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 6: 362-365.
52. Hay, M. E. and Fenical, W. 1988. Marine plant-herbivore interactions: The ecology of chemical defense. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 19: 111-145.
53. Hector, A., Schmid, B., Beierkuhnlein, C. et al. 1999. Plant diversity and productivity experiments in European grasslands. - Science 286: 1123-1127.
54. Holt, R. D. and Loreau, M. 2002. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: The role of trophic interactions and the importance of system openness. - In: Kinzig, A. P., Pacala, S. W. and Tilman, D. (eds), The Functional Consequences of Biodiversity. Empirical Progress and Theoretical Expectations. Princeton Univ. Press, pp. 246-262.
55. Hooper, D. U. and Vitousek, P. M. 1997. The effects of plant composition and diversity on ecosystem processes. - Science 277: 1302-1305.
56. Hughes, T. P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a coral reef. - Science. 256: 1547-1551.
57. Hunter, M. D. and Price, P. W. 1992. Playing chutes and ladders: Heterogeneity and the relative roles of bottom-up and top-down forces in natural communities. - Ecology 73: 724-732.
58. Huntly, N. 1991. Herbivores and the dynamics of communities and ecosystems. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 22: 477-503.
59. Huntly, N. 1995. How important are consumer species to ecosystem functioning? - In: Jones, C. G. and Lawton, J. H. (eds), Linking Species and Ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, pp. 72-83.
60. Huston, M. A. 1994. Biological Diversity. The Coexistence of Species on Changing Landscapes. - Cambridge Univ. Press.
61. Huston, M. A. 1997. Hidden treatments in ecological experiments: Re-evaluating the ecosystem function of biodiversity. - Oecologia 110:449-460.
62. Jackson, J. B. C. et al. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. - Science 293: 629-638.
63. Jennings, S., Pinnegar, J. K., Polunin, N. V. C. and Boon, T. W. 2001. Weak cross-species relationships between body size and trophic level belie powerful size-based trophic structuring in fish communities. - J. Anim. Ecol. 70: 934-944.
64. Jones, C. G., Lawton, J. J. and Shachak, M. 1994. Organisms as ecosystem engineers. - Oikos 69: 373-386.
65. Jonsson, M. and Malmqvist, B. 2000. Ecosystem process rate increases with animal species richness: Evidence from leaf-eating, aquatic insects. - Oikos 89: 519-523.
66. Kinzig, A. P., Pacala, S. W. and Tilman, D. (eds) 2002. The Functional Consequences of Biodiversity. Empirical Progress and Theoretical Expectations. - Princeton Univ. Press.
67. Knops, J. M. H., Tilman, D., Haddad, N. M. et al. 1999. Effects of plant species richness on invasion dynamics, disease outbreaks, insect abundances and diversity. - Ecol. Lett. 2: 286-293.
68. Koricheva, J., Mulder, C. P. H., Schmid, B. et al. 2000. Numerical responses of different trophic groups of invertebrates to manipulations of plant diversity in grasslands. - Oecologia 125: 271-282.
69. Körner, C. 1993. Scaling from species to vegetation: The usefulness of functional groups. - In: Schulze, E.-D. and Mooney, H. A. (eds), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. Springer, pp. 117-140.
70. Krebs, C. J., Keller, B. L. and Tamarin, B. H. 1969. Microtus population biology: Demographic changes in fluctuating populations of M. ochrogaster and M. pennsylvanicus in southern Indiana. - Ecology 50: 587-607.
71. Kurzava, L. M. and Morin, P. J. 1998. Tests of functional equivalence: Complementary roles of salamanders and fish in community organization. - Ecology 79: 477-489.
72. Laska, M. S. and Wootton, J. T. 1998. Theoretical concepts and empirical approaches to measuring interaction strength. - Ecology 79: 461-476.
73. Leibold, M. A. 1989. Resource edibility and the effects of predators and productivity on the outcome of trophic interactions. - Am. Nat. 134: 922-949.
74. Leibold, M. A. 1996. A graphical model of keystone predators in food webs: Trophic regulation of abundance, incidence, and diversity patterns in communities. - Am. Nat. 147: 784-812.
75. Leibold, M. A., Chase, J. M., Shurin, J. B. and Downing, A. L. 1997. Species turnover and the regulation of trophic structure. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 28: 467-494.
76. Loreau, M. 1998. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: A mechanistic model. - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 5632-5636.
77. Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Inchausti, P. et al. 2001. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Current knowledge and future challenges. - Science 294: 804-808.
78. Lubchenco, J. and Gaines, S. D. 1981. A unified approach to marine plant-herbivore interactions. I. Populations and communities. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 12: 405-437.
79. MacArthur, R. H. 1955. Fluctuations of animal populations and a measure of community stability. - Ecology 36: 533-536.
80. May, R. M. 1974. Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton Univ. Press.
81. McCann, K., Hastings, A. and Strong, D. R. 1998. Trophic cascades and trophic trickles in pelagic food webs. - Proc. R. Soc. London B 265: 205-209.
82. McGrady-Steed, J. and Morin, P. J. 2000. Biodiversity, density compensation, and the dynamics of populations and functional groups. - Ecology 81: 361-373.
83. McGrady-Steed, J., Harris, P. M. and Morin, P. J. 1997. Biodiversity regulates ecosystem predictability. - Nature 390: 162-165.
84. McNaughton, S. J. 1985. Ecology of a grazing ecosystem: The Serengeti. - Ecol. Monogr. 55: 259-294.
85. McNaughton, S. J., Ruess, R. W. and Seagle, S. W. 1988. Large mammals and process dynamics in African ecosystems. - BioScience 38: 794-800.
86. Menge, B. A. 1995. Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs: Patterns and importance. - Ecol. Monogr. 65: 21-74.
87. Menge, B. A. and Sutherland, J. P. 1976. Species diversity gradients: Synthesis of the roles of predation, competition, and temporal heterogeneity. - Am. Nat. 110: 351-369.
88. Menge, B. A. and Sutherland, J. P. 1987. Community regulation: Variation in disturbance, competition, and predation in relation to environmental stress and recruitment. - Am. Nat. 130: 730-757.
89. Menge, B. A., Lubchenco, J., Ashkenas, L. R. and Ramsey, F. 1986. Experimental separation of effects of consumers on sessile prey in the low zone of a rocky shore in the Bay of Panama: Direct and indirect consequences of food web complexity. - J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 100: 225-269.
90. Menge, B. A., Berlow, E. L., Blanchette, C. A. et al. 1994. The keystone species concept: Variation in interaction strength in a rocky intertidal habitat. - Ecol. Monogr. 64: 249-286.
91. Metaxas, A. and Scheibling, R. E. 1996. Top-down and bottom-up regulation of phytoplankton assemblages in tide-pools. - Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 145: 161-177.
92. Micheli, F. 1999. Eutrophication, fisheries, and consumer-resource dynamics in marine pelagic ecosystems. - Science 285: 1396-1398.
93. Micheli, F., Cottingham, K. L., Bascompte, J. et al. 1999. The dual nature of community variability. - Oikos 85: 161-169.
94. Mikola, J. and Setälä, H. 1998. Relating species diversity to ecosystem functioning: Mechanistic backgrounds and experimental approach with a decomposer food web. - Oikos 83: 180-194.
95. Mulder, C. P. H., Koricheva, J., Huss-Danell, K. et al. 1999. Insects affect relationships between plant species richness and ecosystem processes. - Ecol. Lett. 2: 237-246.
96. Mulder, C. P. H., Uliassi, D. D. and Doak, D. F. 2001. Physical stress and diversity-productivity relationships: The role of positive interactions. - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 6704-6708.
97. Naeem, S. 2002. Autotrophic-heterotrophic interactions and their impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. - In: Kinzig, A. P., Pacala, S. W. and Tilman, D. (eds), The Functional Consequences of Biodiversity. Empirical Progress and Theoretical Expectations. Princeton Univ. Press, pp. 96-119.
98. Naeem, S. and Li, S. 1997. Biodiversity enhances ecosystem reliability. - Nature 390: 507-509.
99. Naeem, S. and Li, S. 1998. Consumer species richness and autotrophic biomass. - Ecology 79: 2603-2615.
100. Naeem, S., Thompson, L. J., Lawler, S. P. et al. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. - Nature 368: 734-737.
101. Naeem, S., Thompson, L. J., Lawler, S. P. et al. 1995. Empirical evidence that declining species diversity may alter the performance of terrestrial ecosystems. - Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London B 347: 249-262.
102. Norberg, J. 2000. Resource-niche complementarity and autotrophic compensation determines ecosystem-level responses to increased cladoceran species richness. Oecologia 122: 264-272.
103. Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd Edition. - Saunders.
104. Pace, M. L., Cole, J. J., Carpenter, S. R. and Kitchell, J. F. 1999. Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 14: 483-488.
105. Paine, R. T. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. - Am. Nat. 100: 65-75.
106. Paine, R. T. 1980. Food webs: Linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructure. - J. Anim. Ecol. 49: 667-685.
107. Paine, R. T. 1992. Food-web analysis through field measurements of per capita interaction strength. - Nature 355: 73-75.
108. Paine, R. T. 2000. Phycology for the mammalogist: Marine rocky shores and mammal-dominated communities - How different are the structuring processes? - J. Mammal. 81: 637-648.
109. Paine, R. T. 2002. Trophic control of production in a rocky intertidal community. - Science 296: 736-739.
110. Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Dalsgaard, J. et al. 1998. Fishing down marine food webs. - Science 279: 860-863.
111. Persson, L. 1999. Trophic cascades: Abiding heterogeneity and the trophic level concept at the end of the road. - Oikos 85: 385-397.
112. Petchey, O. L., McPhearson, P. T., Casey, T. M. and Morin, P. J. 1999. Environmental warming alters food-web structure and ecosystem function. - Nature 402: 69-72.
113. Pimm, S. L. 1984. The complexity and stability of ecosystems. - Nature 307: 321-326.
114. Pimm, S. L., Russell, G. J., Gittleman; J. L. and Brooks, T. M. 1995. The future of biodiversity. - Science 26: 347-350.
115. Pinnegar, J. K., Polunin, N. V. C., Francour, P. et al. 2000. Trophic cascades in benthic marine ecosystems: Lessons for fisheries and protected-area management. - Environ. Conserv. 27: 179-200.
116. Polis, G. A. 1991. Complex trophic interactions in deserts: An empirical critique of food web theory. - Am. Nat. 138: 123-155.
117. Polis, G. A. and Holt, R. D. 1992. Intraguild predation: The dynamics of complex trophic interactions. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 7: 151-154.
118. Polis, G. A. and Strong, D. R. 1996. Food web complexity and community dynamics. - Am. Nat. 147: 813-846.
119. Polis, G. A., Sears, A. L. W., Huxel, G. R. et al. 2000. When is a trophic cascade atrophic cascade? - Trends Ecol. Evol. 15: 473-475.
120. Power, M. E. 1990. Effects of fish in river food webs. - Science 250: 411-415.
121. Power, M. E., Tilman, D., Estes, J. A. et al. 1996. Challenges in the quest for keystones. - BioScience 46: 609-620.
122. Prins, H. H. T. and Douglas-Hamilton, I. 1990. Stability in a multi-species assemblage of large herbivores in East Africa. - Oecologia 83: 392-400.
123. Purvis, A., Gittleman, J. L., Cowlishaw, G. and Mace, G. M. 2000. Predicting extinction risk in declining species. - Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 267: 1947-1952.
124. Raffaelli, D. G. and Hall, S. J. 1995. Assessing the relative importance of trophic links in food webs. - In: Polis, G. and Winemiller, K. (eds), Foodwebs: Integration of Patterns and Dynamics. Chapman and Hall, pp. 185-191.
125. Ritchie, M. E. and Olff, H. 1999. Herbivore diversity and plant dynamics: Compensatory and additive effects. - In: Olff, H., Brown, V. K. and Drent, R. H. (eds), Herbivores: Between Plants and Predators. Blackwell, pp. 175-204.
126. Sala, E. and Graham, M. H. 2002. Community-wide distribution of predator-prey interaction strength in kelp forests. -Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 3678-3683.
127. Sankaran, M. and McNaughton, S. J. 1999. Determinants of biodiversity regulate compositional stability of communities. - Nature 401: 691-693.
128. Schläpfer, F. and Schmid, B. 1999. Ecosystem effects of biodiversity: A classification of hypotheses and exploration of empirical results. - Ecol. Appl. 9: 893-912.
129. Schmitz, O. J. and Sokol-Hessner, L. 2002. Linearity in the aggregate effects of multiple predators in a food web. - Ecol. Lett. 5: 168-172.
130. Schmitz, O. J., Hambaeck, P. A. and Beckerman, A. P. 2000. Trophic cascades in terrestrial systems: A review of the effects of carnivore removals on plants. - Am. Nat. 155: 141-153.
131. Schwartz, M. W., Brigham, C. A., Hoeksema, J. D. et al. 2000. Linking biodiversity to ecosystem function: Implications for conservation ecology. - Oecologia 122: 297-305.
132. Shiomoto, A., Tadakoro, K., Nagasawa, K. and Ishida, Y. 1997. Trophic relations in the subarctic North Pacific ecosystem: Possible feeding effect from pink salmon. - Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 150: 75-85.
133. Siemann, E., Tilman, D., Haarstad, J. and Ritchie, M. 1998. Experimental tests of the dependence of arthropod diversity on plant diversity. - Am. Nat. 152: 738-750.
134. Sih, A., Crowley, P., McPeek, M. et al. 1985. Predation, competition, and prey communities: A review of field experiments. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16: 269-311.
135. Sih, A., Englund, G. and Wooster, D. 1998. Emergent impacts of multiple predators on prey. - Trends Ecol. Evol. 13: 350-355.
136. Skoglund, T. 1991. What are the effects of predators on large ungulate populations? - Oikos 61: 401-411.
137. Sommer, U., Sommer, F., Santer, B. et al. 2001. Complementary impact of copepods and cladocerans on phytoplankton. - Ecol. Lett. 4: 545-550.
138. Steiner, C. F. 2001. The effects of prey heterogeneity and consumer identity on the limitation of trophic-level biomass. Ecology 82: 2495-2506.
139. Strong, D. R. 1992. Are trophic cascades all wet? Differentiation and donor control in speciose ecosystems. - Ecology 73: 747-754.
140. Symstad, A. J., Siemann, E. and Haarstad, J. 2000. An experimental test of the effect of plant functional group diversity on arthropod diversity. - Oikos. 89: 243-253.
141. Terborgh, J., Estes, J. A., Paquet, P. et al. 1999. The role of top carnivores in regulating terrestrial ecosystems. - In: Soulé, M. E. and Terborgh, J. (eds), Continental Conservation. Island Press.
142. Terborgh, J., Lopez, L., Nuñez, V. P. et al. 2001. Ecological meltdown in predator-free forest fragments. - Science 294: 1923-1926.
143. Thacker, R. W., Ginsburg, D. W. and Paul, V. J. 2001. Effects of herbivore exclusion and nutrient enrichment on coral reef macroalgae and cyanobacteria. - Coral Reefs 19: 318-329.
144. Tilman, D. 1999. The ecological consequences of changes in biodiversity: A search for general principles. - Ecology 80: 1455-1474.
145. Tilman, D. and Downing, J. A. 1994. Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. - Nature 367: 363-365.
146. Tilman, D., Lehman, C. L. and Thomson, K. T. 1997a. Plant diversity and ecosystem productivity: Theoretical considerations. - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 1857-1861.
147. Tilman, D., Knops, J., Wedin, D. et al. 1997b. The influence of functional diversity and composition on ecosystem processes. - Science 277: 1300-1302.
148. Tilman, D., Lehman, C. L. and Bristow, C. E. 1998. Diversity-stability relationships: Statistical inevitability or ecological consequence? - Am. Nat. 151: 277-282.
149. Tilman, D., Reich, P. B., Knops, J. et al. 2001. Diversity and productivity in long-term grassland experiments. - Science 294: 843-845.
150. Vitousek, P. M. and Hooper, D. U. 1993. Biological diversity and terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry. - In: Schulze, E.-D. and Mooney, H. A. (eds), Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. Springer-Verlag, pp. 3-14.
151. Wardle, D. A. 1999. Is "sampling effect" a problem for experiments investigating biodiversity - Ecosystem function relationships? - Oikos 87: 403-407.
152. Wilcove, D. S., Rothstein, D., Dubow, J. et al. 1998. Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States. - BioScience 48: 607-615.
153. Woodroffe, R. and Ginsberg, J. R. 1998. Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas. - Science 280: 2126-2128.
154. Wootton, J. T. 1994. The nature and consequences of indirect effects in ecological communities. - Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 25: 443-466.
155. Wootton, J. T. 1997. Estimates and tests of per capita interactions strength: Diet, abundance, and impact of intertidally foraging birds. - Ecol. Monog. 67: 45-64.