Thoracic outlet syndrome

Current Problems in Surgery

Volumn 39, Issue 11, 2002, Pages 1070-1145

  Mackinnon, Susan E ^a   Novak, Christine B ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTERY INJURY; BRACHIAL PLEXUS NEUROPATHY; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; ELECTRODIAGNOSIS; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PATIENT EDUCATION; PERIPHERAL NERVE INJURY; PHYSIOTHERAPY; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; REVIEW; RIB RESECTION; SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY; SURGICAL ANATOMY; SURGICAL APPROACH; THORAX OUTLET SYNDROME;

EID: 0036845622     PISSN: 00113840     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1067/msg.2002.127926     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Wilbourn AJ. Thoracic outlet syndrome surgery causing severe brachial plexopathy. Muscle Nerve 1988;11:66-74.
2. Wilbourn AJ. Thoracic outlet syndrome: a neurologist's perspective. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:821-39.
3. Cooper A. On exostosis. In: Cooper A, Travers B, editors. Surgical essays, part 1. London: Cox and Son; 1818. p. 159.
4. Coote H. Exostosis of the left transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra, surrounded by blood vessels and nerves: successful removal. Lancet 1861;1:360-1.
5. Paget J. Clinical lectures and essays. London: Longman, Greens, and Co; 1875.
6. Stopford JSB, Telford ED. Compression of the lower trunk of the brachial plexus by a first dorsal rib. Br J Surg 1919;7:168-77.
7. Keen WW. The symptomatology, diagnosis and surgical treatment of cervical ribs. Am J Med Sci 1907;133:173-218.
8. Murphy T. Brachial neuritis caused by pressure of first rib. Aust Med J 1910;15: 582-5.
9. Halsted WS. An experimental study of circumscribed dilation of an artery immediately distal to a partially occluding band and its bearing on the dilation of the subclavian artery observed in certain cases of cervical rib. J Exp Med 1916;24:271-86.
10. Adson AW, Coffey JR. Cervical rib: a method of anterior approach for the relief of symptoms by division of the scalenus anticus. Ann Surg 1927;85:839-57.
11. Adson AW. Surgical treatment for symptoms produced by cervical ribs and the scalenus anticus muscle. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1947;85:687-700.
12. Ochsner A, Gage M, DeBakey M. Scalenus anticus (Naffziger) syndrome. Am J Surg 1935;28:669-95.
13. Naffziger HC, Grant WT. Neuritis of the brachial plexus mechanical in origin: the scalenus origin. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1938;67:722.
14. Aynesworth KH. The cervicobrachial syndrome: a discussion of the etiology with report of twenty cases. Ann Surg 1940;111:724-42.
15. Falconer MA, Weddell G. Costoclavicular compression of the subclavian artery and vein. Lancet 1943;2:539-43.
16. Telford ED, Mottershead S. The costoclavicular syndrome. Br Med J 1947;1:325-8.
17. Peet RM, Hendrickson JD, Anderson TP, Martin GM. Thoracic outlet syndrome: evaluation of a therapeutic exercise program. Mayo Clin Proc 1956;31:281-7.
18. Clagett OT. Presidential address: research and prosearch. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1962;44:153-66.
19. Falconer MA, Li WP. Resection of the first rib in costoclavicular compression of the brachial plexus. Lancet 1962;1:59-63.
20. Roos DB. Transaxillary approach for first rib resection to relieve thoracic outlet syndrome. Ann Surg 1966;163:354-8.
21. Roos DB, Owens JC. Thoracic outlet syndrome. Arch Surg 1966;93:71-4.
22. Urschel HC, Razzuk MA. Neurovascular compression in the thoracic outlet: changing management over 50 years. Ann Surg 1998;228:609-17.
23. Sanders RJ, Pearce WH. The treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome: a comparison of different operations. J Vasc Surg 1989;10:626-34.
24. Cherington M, Happer I. Surgery for thoracic outlet syndrome may be hazardous to your health. Muscle Nerve 1986;9:632-4.
25. Cherington M, Cherington C. Thoracic outlet syndrome: reimbursement patterns and patient profiles. Neurology 1992;42:943-5.
26. Wilbourn AJ. Thoracic outlet syndromes: plea for conservatism. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1991;2:235-45.
27. Urschel HC, Razzuk MA. Thoracic outlet syndrome. N Engl J Med 1972;286: 1140-3.
28. Wilbourn AJ, Lederman RJ. Evidence for conduction delay in thoracic outlet syndrome is challenged. N Engl J Med 1984;310:1052-3.
29. Dale A. Thoracic outlet compression syndrome: critique in 1982. Arch Surg 1982;117:1437-45.
30. Sanders RJ. Thoracic outlet syndrome: annotated bibliography 1740-1991. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:887-960.
31. Sanders RJ. Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome: annotated bibliography 1990-1999. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:869-86.
32. Sanders RJ. Venous thoracic outlet syndrome: annotated bibliography 1984-1998. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:853-68.
33. Sanders RJ, Haug CE. Thoracic outlet syndrome: a common sequela of neck injuries. Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1991.
34. Pratt NE. Neurovascular entrapment in the regions of the shoulder and posterior triangle. Phys Ther 1986;66:1894-900.
35. Ranney D. Thoracic outlet: an anatomical redefinition that makes clinical sense. Clin Anat 1996;9:50-2.
36. Roos DB. Congenital anomalies associated with thoracic outlet syndrome. Am J Surg 1976;132:771-8.
37. Roos DB. New concepts of thoracic outlet syndrome that explain etiology, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. Vasc Surg 1979;13:313-21.
38. Mackinnon SE. Pathophysiology of nerve compression. Hand Clin [In press].
39. Dellon AL, Mackinnon SE. Human ulnar neuropathy at the elbow: clinical, electrical and morphometric correlations. J Reconstr Microsurg 1988;4:179-84.
40. Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL. Experimental study of chronic nerve compression: clinical implications. Hand Clin 1986;2:639-50.
41. Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL, Hudson AR, Hunter DA. Chronic nerve compression: an experimental model in the rat. Ann Plast Surg 1984;13:112-20.
42. Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL, Hudson AR, Hunter DA. Chronic human nerve compression: a histological assessment. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1986;12:547-65.
43. Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL, Hudson AR, Hunter DA. A primate model for chronic nerve compression. J Reconstr Microsurg 1985;1:185-94.
44. O'Brien JP, Mackinnon SE, MacLean AR, Hudson AR, Dellon AL, Hunter DA. A model of chronic nerve compression in the rat. Ann Plast Surg 1987;19:430-5.
45. Lundborg G. Nerve injury and repair. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1988.
46. Novak CB, Mackinnon SE, Patterson GA. Evaluation of patients with thoracic outlet syndrome. J Hand Surg 1993;18A:292-9.
47. Upton ARM, McComas AJ. The double crush in nerve-entrapment syndromes. Lancet 1973;2:359-62.
48. Dellon AL, Mackinnon SE. Chronic nerve compression model for the double crush hypothesis. Ann Plast Surg 1991;26:259-64.
49. Mackinnon SE. Double and multiple crush syndromes. Hand Clin 1992;8:369-80.
50. Armstrong RB. Initial events in exercise-induced muscular injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990;22:429-35.
51. Faulkner JA, Brooks SV, Opiteck JA. Injury to skeletal muscle fibers during contractions: conditions of occurrence and prevention. Phys Ther 1993;73:911-21.
52. Friden J, Lieber RL. Biomechanical injury to skeletal muscle from repetitive loading: eccentric contraction and vibrations. In: Gordon SL, Blair SJ, Fine LJ, editors. Repetitive motion disorders of the upper extremity. Rosemont, Illinois: American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons; 1995. p. 301-12.
53. Friden J, Sjostrom M, Ekblom B. A morphological study of delayed muscle soreness. Experientia 1981;37:506-7.
54. Friden J, Sjostrom M, Ekblom B. Myofibrillar damage following intense eccentric exercise in man. Int J Sports Med 1983;4:170-6.
55. Howell JN, Chleboun G, Conatser R. Muscle stiffness, strength loss, swelling and soreness following exercise-induced injury in humans. J Physiol (Lond) 1993;464: 183-96.
56. Newham DJ, Jones DA, Edwards RHT. Large delayed plasma creatine kinase changes after stepping exercise. Muscle Nerve 1983;6:380-5.
57. Newham DJ, McPhail G, Mills KR, Edwards RHT. Ultrastructural changes after concentric and eccentric contractions of human muscle. J Neurol Sci 1983;61:109-22.
58. Newham DJ, Mills KR, Quigley BM, Edwards RHT. Pain and fatigue after concentric muscle contractions. Clin Sci 1983;64:55-62.
59. Sahrmann SA. Diagnosis and treatment of movement impairment syndromes. St. Louis: Mosby; 2002.
60. White SG, Sahrmann SA. A movement balance system approach to management of musculoskeletal pain. In: Grant R, editor. Clinics in physical therapy: physical therapy of the cervical and thoracic spine. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1994.
61. Mackinnon SE, Novak CB. Clinical commentary: pathogenesis of cumulative trauma disorder. J Hand Surg 1994;19A:873-83.
62. Ireland DCR. The Australian experience with cumulative trauma disorders. In: Millender LH, Louis DS, Simmons BP, editors. Occupational disorders of the upper extremity. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1992. p. 79-88.
63. Lister GD. Ergonomic disorders. J Hand Surg 1995;20A:353.
64. Mackinnon SE, Patterson GA, Urschel HC. Thoracic outlet syndromes. In: Pearson G, Hebert C, McKneally M, Urschel H, editors. Thoracic surgery. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1995. p. 1211-36.
65. Schneider DB, Azakie A, Messina LM, Stoney RJ. Management of vascular thoracic outlet syndrome. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:781-802.
66. Adams JT, DeWeese JA. Effort thrombosis of the axillary and subclavian veins. J Trauma 1971;11:923-30.
67. Tilney ML, Griffiths HJ, Edwards EA. Natural history of major venous thrombosis of the upper extremity. Arch Surg 1970;101:792-6.
68. Machleder HI. Evaluation of a new strategy for Paget-Schroetter syndrome: spontaneous thrombosis of the axillary-subclavian vein. J Vasc Surg 1993;17:305-15.
69. Urschel HC, Razzuk MA. Improved management of the Paget-Schroetter syndrome secondary to thoracic outlet syndrome. Ann Thor Surg 1991:1217-21.
70. Urschel HC, Razzuk MA. Paget-Schroetter syndrome: What is the best management? Ann Thor Surg 2000;69:1663-9.
71. Thomas HM, Cushing HG. Exhibition of two cases of paralysis of the brachial plexus: the other from uncertain origin. Johns Hopkins Hosp Bull 1903;14:315-9.
72. Gilliatt RW, LeQuesne PM, Logue V, Sumner AJ. Wasting of the hand associated with a cervical rib or band. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1970;33:615-24.
73. Luoma A, Nelems B. Thoracic outlet surgery, thoracic surgery perspective. Neurosurg Clin N Am 1991;2:187-226.
74. Mackinnon SE, Novak CB. Evaluation of the patient with thoracic outlet syndrome. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;8:190-200.
75. Buehler MJ, Thayer DT. The elbow flexion test: a clinical test for the cubital tunnel syndrome. Clin Ortho 1988;233:213-6.
76. Gonzalez Del Pino J, Delgado-Martinez AD, Gonzalez I, Lovic A. Value of the carpal compression test in the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg 1997;22B:38-41.
77. MacDermid J. Accuracy of clinical tests used in the detection of carpal tunnel syndrome: a literature review. J Hand Ther 1991;4:169-76.
78. Mackinnon SE, Dellon AL. Surgery of the peripheral nerve. New York: Thieme Medical Publishers; 1988.
79. Novak CB, Lee GW, Mackinnon SE, Lay L. Provocative testing for cubital tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg 1994;19A:817-20.
80. Paley D, McMurtry RY. Median nerve compression test in carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosis: reproduces signs and symptoms in affected wrist. Orthop Rev 1985;14: 41-5.
81. Phalen GS. The carpal tunnel syndrome: clinical evaluation of 598 hands. Clin Orthop 1972;83:29-40.
82. Rayan GM, Jenson C, Duke J. Elbow flexion test in the normal population. J Hand Surg 1992;17A:86-9.
83. Williams TM, Mackinnon SE, Novak CB, McCabe S, Kelly L. Verification of the pressure provocative test in carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg 1992;29:8-11.
84. Durkan J. A new diagnostic test for carpal tunnel syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg 1997;73A:535-8.
85. Phalen GS. The carpal tunnel syndrome: seventeen years experience in diagnosis and treatment of six hundred and fifty four hands. J Bone Joint Surg 1966;48A: 211-28.
86. Dellon AL. Evaluation of sensibility and re-education of sensation of the hand. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1981.
87. Dellon AL. Clinical use of vibratory stimuli to evaluate peripheral nerve injury and compression neuropathy. Plast Reconstr Surg 1980;65:466-76.
88. Dellon AL. Computer-assisted quantitative sensorimotor testing in patients with carpal and cubital tunnel syndromes. Ann Plast Surg 1997;38:493-502.
89. Gelberman RH, Szabo RM, Williamson RV, Dimick MP. Sensibility testing in peripheral-nerve compression syndromes. J Bone Joint Surg 1983;65A:632-8.
90. Szabo RM, Gelberman RH, Dimick MP. Sensibility testing in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg 1984;66A:60-4.
91. Gerr FE, Letz R. Reliability of a widely used test of peripheral cutaneous vibration sensitivity and a comparison of two testing protocols. Br J Ind Med 1988;45:635-9.
92. Grunert BK, Wertsch JJ, Matloub HS, McCallum-Burke S. Reliability of sensory threshold measurement using a digital vibrogram. J Occup Med 1990;32:100-2.
93. Lundborg G, Dahlin LB, Lundstrom R, Necking L, Stromberg T. Vibrotactile function of the hand in compression and vibration-induced neuropathy. Scand J Plast Reconstr Hand Surg 1992;25:1-5.
94. Lundborg G, Lie-Stenstrom A, Stromberg T, Pyykko I. Digital vibrogram: a new diagnostic tool for sensory testing in compression neuropathy. J Hand Surg 1986;11A:693-9.
95. Novak CB, Mackinnon SE, Williams JI, Kelly L. Establishment of reliability in the evaluation of hand sensibility. Plast Reconstr Surg 1993;92:311-22.
96. Bell-Krotoski JA. Light touch-deep pressure testing using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. In: Hunter JM, Schneider LH, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, editors. Rehabilitation of the hand: surgery & therapy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1990.
97. Bell-Krotoski JA. Sensibility testing: current concepts. In: Hunter JM, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, editors. Rehabilitation of the hand: surgery & therapy. St. Louis: Mosby; 1995. p. 109-28.
98. Janda V. Muscle strength in relation to muscle length, pain and muscle imbalance. In: Harms-Ringdahl K, editor. Muscle strength. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1993. p. 83-91.
99. Kendall FP, McCreary EK, Provance PG. Muscles testing and function. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1993.
100. Chen DL, Novak CB, Mackinnon SE, Weisenborn SA. Pain responses in patients with upper extremity disorders. J Hand Surg 1998;23A:70-5.
101. Hendler N, Mollett A, Viernstein M, Schroeder D, Rybock J, Campbell J, et al. A comparison between the MMPI and the Mensana clinic back pain test for validating the complaint of chronic back pain in women. Pain 1985;23:243-51.
102. Hendler N, Viernstein M, Gucer P, Long D. A preoperative screening test for chronic back pain patients. Psychosomatics 1979;20:801-8.
103. Melzack R. The McGill pain questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain 1975;1:277-99.
104. Bilbey JH, Muller NL, Connell DG, Luoma AA, Nelems B. Thoracic outlet syndrome: evaluation with CT. Radiology 1989;171:381-4.
105. Gebarski KS, Glazer GM, Gebarski SS. Brachial plexus: anatomic, radiologic and pathologic correlation using computed tomography. J Comput Tomogr 1982;6: 1058-63.
106. Urschel HC, Razzuk MA, Wood RE, Parekh M, Paulson DL. Objective diagnosis (ulnar nerve conduction velocity) and current therapy of the thoracic outlet syndrome. Ann Thor Surg 1971;12:608-20.
107. Gunnarsson LG, Amilon A, Hellstrand P, Leissner P, Philpson L. The diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome: sensitivity and specificity of some clinical and electrophysiological tests. J Hand Surg 1997;22B:34-7.
108. Jablecki CK, Andary MT, So YT, Wilkins DE, Williams FH. Literature review of the usefulness of nerve conduction studies and electromyography for the evaluation of patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Muscle Nerve 1993;16:1392-414.
109. Melvin JL, Schuchmann JA, Lanese RR. Diagnostic specificity of motor and sensory nerve conduction variables in the carpal tunnel syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehab 1973;54:69-74.
110. Machleder HI, Moll F, Nuwer M, Jordan S. Somatosensory evoked potentials in the assessment of thoracic outlet syndrome. J Vasc Surg 1987;6:177-84.
111. Yiannikas C, Walsh JC. Somatosensory evoked responses in the diagnosis of thoracic outlet syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983;46:234-40.
112. Komanetsky RM, Novak CB, Mackinnon SE, Russo M, Padberg A. Somatosensory evoked potentials fail to diagnose thoracic outlet syndrome. J Hand Surg 1996; 21A:662-6.
113. Aligne C, Barral X. Rehabilitation of patients with thoracic outlet syndrome. Ann Vasc Surg 1992;6:381-9.
114. Barbis JM, Wallace KA. Therapist's management of brachioplexopathy. In: Hunter JM, Mackin EJ, Callahan AD, editors. Rehabilitation of the hand: surgery and therapy. Philadelphia: Mosby; 1995. p. 923-50.
115. Kenny RA, Traynor GB, Withington D, Keegan DJ. Thoracic outlet syndrome: a useful exercise treatment option. Am J Surg 1993;165:282-4.
116. Nakatsuchi Y, Saitoh S, Hosaka M, Matsuda S. Conservative treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome using an orthosis. J Hand Surg 1995;20B:34-9.
117. Novak CB. Conservative management of thoracic outlet syndrome. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:747-60.
118. Novak CB, Collins ED, Mackinnon SE. Outcome following conservative management of thoracic outlet syndrome. J Hand Surg 1995;20A:542-8.
119. Novak CB, Mackinnon SE. Thoracic outlet syndrome. Orthop Clin North Am 1996;27:747-62.
120. Pang D, Wessel HB. Thoracic outlet syndrome. Neurosurgery 1988;22:105-21.
121. Walsh MT. Therapist management of thoracic outlet syndrome. J Hand Ther 1994;7:131-44.
122. Howell JW. Evaluation and management of thoracic outlet syndrome. In: Donatelli R, editor. Clinics in physical therapy: physical therapy of the shoulder. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1991. p. 151-90.
123. Janda V. Muscle function testing. London: Butterworth; 1983.
124. McKenzie RA. The cervical and thoracic spine. Waikanae, New Zealand: Spinal Publications; 1990.
125. Janda V. Muscles and motor control in cervicogenic disorders: assessment and management. In: Grant R,, editor. Clinics in physical therapy: physical therapy of the cervical and thoracic spine. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1995. p. 153-66.
126. Sanders RJ, Jackson CGR, Banchero P, Pearce WH. Scalene muscle abnormalities in traumatic thoracic outlet syndrome. Am J Surg 1990;159:231-6.
127. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL. Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998;22:39-47.
128. Totten PA, Hunter JM. Therapeutic techniques to enhance nerve gliding in thoracic outlet syndrome and carpal tunnel syndrome. Hand Clin 1991;7:505-20.
129. Butler DS. Mobilisation of the nervous system. Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone; 1991.
130. Mokdad AH, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Bowman BA, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. JAMA 1999;282: 1519-22.
131. Karpitskaya Y, Novak CB, Mackinnon SE. Prevalence of smoking, obesity, diabetes mellitus and thyroid disease in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. Ann Plast Surg 2002;48:269-73.
132. Nathan PA, Keniston RC, Myers LD, Meadows KD. Obesity as a risk factor for slowing of sensory conduction of the median nerve in industry. J Occup Med 1992;34:379-83.
133. Troiano RP, Flegal KM, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM, Johnson CL. Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1963 to 1991. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1995; 149:1085-91.
134. World Health Organization. Obesity epidemic puts millions at risk from related diseases: WHO/46. Geneva: Health Communications & Public Relations; 1997.
135. Gonzalez F, Walton RL, Shafer B, Matory WE Jr, Borah GL. Reduction mammaplasty improves symptoms of macromastia. Plast Reconstr Surg 1993;91: 1270-6.
136. Horowitz SH. Brachial plexus injuries with causalgia resulting from transaxillary rib resection. Arch Surg 1985;120:1189-91.
137. Sanders RJ. Results of surgical treatment for thoracic outlet syndrome. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;8:221-8.
138. Mackinnon SE, Patterson GA. Supraclavicular first rib resection. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996;8:208-13.
139. Mackinnon SE, Patterson GA. Supraclavicular first rib resection. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:761-70.
140. Urschel HC. The transaxillary approach for treatment of thoracic outlet syndrome. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;35:95-111.
141. Sanders RJ, Hammond SL. Complications and results of surgical treatment for thoracic outlet syndrome. Chest Surg Clin N Am 1999;9:803-20.