Functional anatomy, pathomechanics, and pathophysiology of lateral ankle instability

Journal of Athletic Training

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 364-375

  Hertel, Jay ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Ankle sprain; Functional instability; Mechanical instability; Subtalar joint; Talocrural joint

Indexed keywords

ANKLE; ANKLE INSTABILITY; ANKLE SPRAIN; BIOMECHANICS; HUMAN; JOINT DEGENERATION; KINEMATICS; MEDLINE; NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION; PROPRIOCEPTION; REVIEW; SUBTALAR JOINT;

EID: 0036821188     PISSN: 10626050     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Garrick JG. The frequency of injury, mechanism of injury, and epidemiology of ankle sprains. Am J Sports Med. 1977;5:241-242.
2. Hosea TM, Carey CC, Harrer MF. The gender issue: epidemiology of ankle injuries in athletes who participate in basketball. Clin Orthop. 2000;372:45-49.
3. Kanus P, Reustrom P. Treatment for acute tears of the lateral ligaments of the ankle: operation, cast, or early controlled mobilization. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1991;73:305-312.
4. Smith RW, Reischl SF. Treatment of ankle sprains in young athletes. Am J Sports Med. 1986;14:465-471.
5. Ekstrand J, Tropp H. The incidence of ankle sprains in soccer. Foot Ankle. 1990;11:41-44.
6. Milgrom C, Shlamkovitch N, Finestone A, et al. Risk factors for lateral ankle sprain: a prospective study among military recruits. Foot Ankle. 1991;12:26-30.
7. Bahr R, Bahr IA. Incidence of acute volleyball injuries: a prospective cohort study of injury mechanisms and risk factors. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1997;7:166-171.
8. McKay GD, Goldie PA, Payne WR, Oakes BW. Ankle injuries in basketball: injury rate and risk factors. Br J Sports Med. 2001;35:103-108.
9. Yeung MS, Chan KM, So CH, Yuan WY. An epidemiological survey on ankle sprain. Br J Sports Med. 1994;28:112-116.
10. Harrington KD. Degenerative arthritis of the ankle secondary to long-standing lateral ligament instability. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1979;61: 354-361.
11. Gross P, Marti B. Risk of degenerative ankle joint disease in volleyball players: study of former elite athletes. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20:58-63.
12. Gerber JP, Williams GN, Scoville CR, Arciero RA, Taylor DC. Persistent disability associated with ankle sprains: a prospective examination of an athletic population. Foot Ankle Int. 1998;19:653-660.
13. Braun BL. Effects of ankle sprain in a general clinical population 6 to 18 months after medical evaluation. Arch Fam Med. 1999;8:143-148.
14. Fallat L, Grimm DJ, Saracco JA. Sprained ankle syndrome: prevalence and analysis of 639 acute injuries. J Foot Ankle Surg. 1998;37:280-285.
15. Verhagen RA, de Keizer G, van Dijk CN. Long-term follow-up of inversion trauma of the ankle. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1995;114:92-96.
16. Freeman MAR. Instability of the foot after injuries to the lateral ligament of the ankle. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1965;47:669-677.
17. Freeman MAR, Dean MRE, Hanham IWF. The etiology and prevention of functional instability of the foot. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1965;47:678-685.
18. Brand RL, Black HM, Cox JS. The natural history of the inadequately treated ankle sprain. Am J Sports Med. 1977;5:248-249.
19. Renstrom PAFH, Konradsen L. Ankle ligament injuries. Br J Sports Med. 1997;31:11-20.
20. Bosien WR, Staples OS, Russell SW. Residual disability following acute ankle sprains. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1955;37:1237-1243.
21. Tropp H, Odenrick P, Gillquist J. Stabilometry recordings in functional and mechanical instability of the ankle joint. Int J Sports Med. 1985;6: 180-182.
22. Hertel J. Functional instability following lateral ankle sprain. Sports Med. 2000;29:361-371.
23. Wilkerson GB, Nitz AJ. Dynamic ankle stability: mechanical and neuromuscular interrelationships. J Sport Rehabil. 1994;3:43-57.
24. Huson A. Joints and movements of the foot: terminology and concepts. Acta Morphol Neerl Scand. 1987;25:117-130.
25. Rockar PA Jr. The subtalar joint: anatomy and joint motion. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;21:361-372.
26. Lundberg A, Goldie I, Kalin B, Selvik G. Kinematics of the ankle/foot complex: plantarflexion and dorsiflexion. Foot Ankle. 1989;9:194-200.
27. Stormont DM, Morrey BF, An KN, Cass JR. Stability of the loaded ankle: relation between articular restraint and primary and secondary static restraints. Am J Sports Med. 1985;13:295-300.
28. Burks RT, Morgan J. Anatomy of the lateral ankle ligaments. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:72-77.
29. Renstrom P, Wertz M, Incavo S, Pope M, Ostgaard HC, Arms S, Haugh L. Strain in the lateral ligaments of the ankle. Foot Ankle. 1988;9:59-63.
30. Stephens MM, Sammarco GJ. The stabilizing role of the lateral ligament complex around the ankle and subtalar joints. Foot Ankle. 1992;13:130-136.
31. Cass JR, Settles H. Ankle instability: in vitro kinematics in response to axial load. Foot Ankle Int. 1994;15:134-140.
32. Hollis JM, Blasier RD, Flahiff CM. Simulated lateral ankle ligamentous injury: change in ankle stability. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23:672-677.
33. Attarian DE, McCrackin HJ, DeVito DP, McElhaney JH, Garrett WE Jr. Biomechanical characteristics of human ankle ligaments. Foot Ankle. 1985;6:54-58.
34. Holmer P, Sondergaard L, Konradsen L, Nielsen PT, Jorgensen LN. Epidemiology of sprains in the lateral ankle and foot. Foot Ankle. 1994;15:72-74.
35. Kjaersgaard-Andersen P, Wethelund JO, Helmig P, Nielsen S. Effect of the calcaneofibular ligament on hindfoot rotation in amputation specimens. Acta Orthop Scand. 1987;58:135-138.
36. Perry J. Anatomy and biomechanics of the hindfoot. Clin Orthop. 1983; 177:9-15.
37. Viladot A, Lorenzo JC, Salazar J, Rodriguez A. The subtalar joint: embryology and morphology. Foot Ankle. 1984;5:54-66.
38. Inman VT. The Joints of the Ankle. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins; 1976.
39. Kjaersgaard-Andersen P, Wethelund JO, Helmig P, Soballe K. The stabilizing effect of the ligamentous structures in the sinus and canalis tarsi on movements in the hindfoot: an experimental study. Am J Sports Med. 1988;16:512-516.
40. Harper MC. The lateral ligamentous support of the subtalar joint. Foot Ankle. 1991;11:354-358.
41. Hertel J, Denegar CR, Monroe MM, Stokes WL. Talocrural and subtalar joint instability after lateral ankle sprain. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999; 31:1501-1508.
42. Karlsson J, Eriksson BI, Renstrom PA. Subtalar ankle instability: a review. Sports Med. 1997;5:337-346.
43. Meyer JM, Lagier R. Post-traumatic sinus tarsi syndrome: an anatomical and radiological study. Acta Orthop Scand. 1977;48:121-128.
44. Mulligan BR. Manual Therapy: "NAGS", "SNAGS", "MWMS", Etc. 3rd ed. Wellington, New Zealand: Plane View Services LTD; 1995.
45. Miller CD, Shelton WR, Barrett GR, Savoie FH, Dukes AD. Deltoid and syndesmosis ligament injury of the ankle without fracture. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23:746-750.
46. Ashton-Miller JA, Ottaviani RA, Hutchinson C, Wojtys EM. What best protects the inverted weightbearing ankle against further inversion? Evertor muscle strength compares favorably with shoe height, athletic tape, and three orthoses. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24:800-809.
47. Sinkjaer T, Toft E, Andreassen S, Hornemann BC. Muscle stiffness in human ankle dorsiflexors: intrinsic and reflex components. J Neurophysiol. 1988;60:1110-1121.
48. Michelson JD, Hutchins C. Mechanoreceptors in human ankle ligaments. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77:219-224.
49. Takebayashi T, Yamashita T, Minaki Y, Ishii S. Mechanosensitive afferent units in the lateral ligament of the ankle. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1997;79:490-493.
50. Khin-Myo-Hla, Ishii T, Sakane M, Hayashi K. Effect of anesthesia of the sinus tarsi on peroneal reaction time in patients with functional instability of the ankle. Foot Ankle Int. 1999;20:554-559.
51. Wright IC, Neptune RR, van den Bogert AJ, Nigg BM. The influence of foot positioning on ankle sprains. J Biomech. 2000;33:513-519.
52. Broström L. Sprained ankles: I, anatomic lesions on recent sprains. Acta Chir Scand. 1964;128:483-495.
53. Staples OS. Rupture of the fibular collateral ligaments of the ankle: result study of immediate surgical treatment. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1975;57:101-107.
54. Hintermann B. Biomechanics of the unstable ankle joint and clinical implications. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(suppl 7):459-469.
55. Martin LP, Wayne JS, Monahan TJ, Adelaar RS. Elongation behavior of calcaneofibular and cervical ligaments during inversion loads applied in an open kinetic chain. Foot Ankle Int. 1998;19:232-239.
56. Meyer JM, Garcia J, Hoffmeyer P, Fritschy D. The subtalar sprain: a roentgenographic study. Clin Orthop. 1986;226:169-173.
57. Safran MR, Benedetti RS, Bartolozzi AR III, Mandelbaum BR. Lateral ankle sprains: a comprehensive review, part I: etiology, pathoanatomy, histopathogenesis, and diagnosis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(suppl 7):429-437.
58. Fuller EA. Center of pressure and its theoretical relationship to foot pathology. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1999;89:278-291.
59. Isakov E, Mizrahi J, Solzi P, Susak Z, Lotem M. Response of the peroneal muscles to sudden inversion stress during standing. Int J Sport Biomech. 1986;2:100-106.
60. Konradsen L, Voigt M, Hojsgaard C. Ankle inversion injuries: the role of the dynamic defense mechanism. Am J Sports Med. 1997;25:54-58.
61. Greenwood R, Hopkins A. Landing from an unexpected fall and a voluntary step. Brain. 1976;99:375-386.
62. Dyhre-Poulsen P, Simonsen EB, Voigt M. Dynamic control of muscle stiffness and H reflex modulation during hopping and jumping in man. J Physiol. 1991;437:287-304.
63. Dietz V. Human neuronal control of automatic functional movements: interaction between central programs and afferent input. Physiol Rev. 1992;72:33-69.
64. Beynnon BD, Renström PA, Alosa DM, Baumhauer JF, Vacek PM. Ankle ligament injury risk factors: a prospective study of college athletes. J Orthop Res. 2001;9:213-220.
65. Tropp H, Ekstrand J, Gillquist J. Stabilometry in functional instability of the ankle and its value in predicting injury. Med Sci Sport Exerc. 1984;16:64-66.
66. McGuine TA, Greene JJ, Best T, Leverson G. Balance as a predictor of ankle injuries in high school basketball players. Clin J Sport Med. 2000; 10:239-244.
67. Payne KA, Berg K, Latin RW. Ankle injuries and ankle strength, flexibility, and proprioception in college basketball players. J Athl Train. 1997;32:221-225.
68. Baumhauer JF, Alosa DM, Renstrom AF, Trevino S, Beynnon B. A prospective study of ankle injury risk factors. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23: 564-570.
69. Martin DE, Kaplan PA, Kahler DM, Dussault R, Randolph BJ. Retrospective evaluation of graded stress examination of the ankle. Clin Orthop. 1996;328:165-170.
70. Frost SC, Amendola A. Is stress radiography necessary in the diagnosis of acute or chronic ankle instability? Clin J Sport Med. 1999;9:40-45.
71. Kovaleski JE, Gurchiek LR, Heitman RJ, Hollis JM, Pearsall AW IV. Instrumented measurement of anteroposterior and inversion-eversion laxity of the normal ankle joint complex. Foot Ankle Int. 1999;20:808-814.
72. Liu W, Siegler S, Techner L. Quantitative measurement of ankle passive flexibility using an arthrometer on sprained ankles. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2001;16:237-244.
73. Rasmussen O, Tovborg-Jensen I. Mobility of the ankle joint: recording of rotatory movements in the talocrural joint in vitro with and without the lateral collateral ligaments of the ankle. Acta Orthop Scand. 1982; 53:155-160.
74. Scranton PE Jr, McDermott JE, Rogers JV. The relationship between chronic ankle instability and variations in mortise anatomy and impingement spurs. Foot Ankle Int. 2000;21:657-664.
75. Bremer SW. The unstable ankle mortise-functional ankle varus. J Foot Surg. 1985;24:313-317.
76. Sugimoto K, Samoto N, Takaoka T, Takakura Y, Tamai S. Subtalar arthrography in acute injuries of the calcaneofibular ligament. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1998;80:785-790.
77. Harper MC. Stress radiographs in the diagnosis of lateral instability of the ankle and hindfoot. Foot Ankle. 1992;13:435-438.
78. van Hellemondt FJ, Louwerens JWK, Sijbrandij ES, van Gils APG. Stress radiography and stress examination of the talocrural and subtalar joint on helical computed tomography. Foot Ankle Int. 1997;18:482-488.
79. Ishii T, Miyagawa S, Fukubayashi T, Hayashi K. Subtalar stress radiography using forced dorsiflexion and supination. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1996;78:56-60.
80. Sijbrandij ES, van Gils AP, van Hellemondt FJ, Louwerens JW, de Lange EE. Assessing the subtalar joint: the Broden view revisited. Foot Ankle Int. 2001;22:329-334.
81. Hetherington B. Lateral ligament strains of the ankle, do they exist? Man Ther. 1996;1:274-275.
82. O'Brien T, Vicenzino B. A study of the effects of Mulligan's mobilization with movement treatment of lateral ankle pain using a case study design. Man Ther. 1998;3:78-84.
83. Kavanagh J. Is there a positional fault at the inferior tibiofibular joint in patients with acute or chronic ankle sprains compared to normals? Man Ther. 1999;4:19-24.
84. Tabrizi P, McIntyre WM, Quesnel MB, Howard AW. Limited dorsiflexion predisposes to injuries of the ankle in children. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2000;82:1103-1106.
85. Leanderson J, Wykman A, Eriksson E. Ankle sprain and postural sway in basketball players. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1993;1: 203-205.
86. Wiesler ER, Hunter DM, Martin DF, Curl WW, Hoen H. Ankle flexibility and injury patterns in dancers. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24:754-757.
87. Green T, Refshauge K, Crosbie J, Adams R. A randomized controlled trial of a passive accessory joint mobilization on acute ankle inversion sprains. Phys Ther. 2001;81:984-994.
88. Denegar CR, Hertel J, Fonseca J. The effect of lateral ankle sprain on dorsiflexion range of motion, posterior talar glide, and joint laxity. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2002;32:166-173.
89. DiGiovanni BF, Fraga CJ, Cohen BE, Shereff MJ. Associated injuries found in chronic lateral ankle instability. Foot Ankle Int. 2000;21:809-815.
90. Taillard W, Meyer JM, Garcia J, Blanc Y. The sinus tarsi syndrome. Int Orthop. 1981;5:117-130.
91. Sugimoto K, Samoto N, Takakura Y, Tamai S. Varus tilt of the tibial plafond as a factor in chronic ligament instability of the ankle. Foot Ankle Int. 1997;18:402-405.
92. Lephart SM, Pincivero DM, Rozzi SL. Proprioception of the ankle and knee. Sports Med. 1998;25:149-155.
93. Garn SN, Newton RA. Kinesthetic awareness in subjects with multiple ankle sprains. Phys Ther. 1988;68:1667-1671.
94. Forkin DM, Koczur C, Battle R, Newton RA. Evaluation of kinesthetic deficits indicative of balance control in gymnasts with unilateral chronic ankle sprains. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1996;23:245-250.
95. Lentell G, Baas B, Lopez D, McGuire L, Sarrels M, Snyder P. The contributions of proprioceptive deficits, muscle function, and anatomic laxity to functional instability of the ankle. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;21:206-215.
96. Glencross D, Thornton E. Position sense following joint injury. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1981;21:23-27.
97. Docherty CL, Moore JH, Arnold BL. Effects of strength training on strength development and joint position sense in functionally unstable ankles. J Athl Train. 1998;33:310-314.
98. Konradsen L, Magnusson P. Increased inversion angle replication error in functional ankle instability. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2000;8:246-251.
99. Gross MT. Effects of recurrent lateral ankle sprains on active and passive judgements of joint position. Phys Ther. 1987;67:1505-1509.
100. Ashton-Miller JA, Wojtys EM, Huston LJ, Fry-Welch D. Can proprioception really be improved by exercises? Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2001;9:128-136.
101. Stoff MD, Greene AF. Common peroneal nerve palsy following inversion ankle injury: a report of two cases. Phys Ther. 1982;62:1463-1464.
102. Nitz AJ, Dobner JJ, Kersey D. Nerve injury and grades II and III ankle sprains. Am J Sports Med. 1985;13:177-182.
103. Bullock-Saxton JE. Local sensation changes and altered hip muscle function following severe ankle sprain. Phys Ther. 1994;74:17-28.
104. Bullock-Saxton JE. Sensory changes associated with severe ankle sprain. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1995;27:161-167.
105. Kleinrensink GJ, Stoeckart R, Meulstee J, et al. Lowered motor conduction velocity of the peroneal nerve after inversion trauma. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26:877-883.
106. Karlsson J, Andréasson GO. The effect of external ankle support in chronic lateral ankle joint instability: an electromyographic study. Am J Sports Med. 1992;20:257-261.
107. Brunt D, Anderson JC, Huntsman B, Reinhert LB, Thorell AC, Sterling JC. Postural responses to lateral perturbation in healthy subjects and ankle sprain patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24:171-176.
108. Konradsen L, Ravn JB. Ankle instability caused by prolonged peroneal reaction time. Acta Orthop Scand. 1990;61:388-390.
109. Lynch SA, Eklund U, Gottlieb D, Renström PA, Beynnon B. Electromyographic latency changes in the ankle musculature during inversion moments. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24:362-369.
110. Lofvenberg R, Karrholm J, Sundelin G, Ahlgren O. Prolonged reaction time in patients with chronic lateral instability of the ankle. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23:414-417.
111. Bullock-Saxton JE, Janda V, Bullock MI. The influence of ankle sprain injury on muscle activation during hip extension. Int J Sports Med. 1994;15:330-334.
112. Konradsen L, Olesen S, Hansen HM. Ankle sensorimotor control and eversion strength after acute ankle inversion injuries. Am J Sports Med. 1998;26:72-77.
113. Nawoczenski DA, Cook TM, Saltzman CL. The effect of foot orthotics on three-dimensional kinematics of the leg and rearfoot during running. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;21:317-327.
114. Johnson MB, Johnson CL. Electromyographic response of peroneal muscles in surgical and nonsurgical injured ankles during sudden inversion. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1993;18:497-501.
115. Ebig M, Lephart SM, Burdett RG, Miller MC, Pincivero DM. The effect of sudden inversion stress on EMG activity of the peroneal and tibialis anterior muscles in the chronically unstable ankle. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1997;26:73-77.
116. Fernandes N, Allison GT, Hopper D. Peroneal latency in normal and injured ankles at varying angles of perturbation. Clin Orthop. 2000;375: 193-201.
117. Friden T, Zatterstrom R, Lindstrand A, Moritz U. A stabilometric technique for evaluation of lower limb instabilities. Am J Sports Med. 1989; 17:118-122.
118. Hertel J, Buckley WE, Denegar CR. Serial testing of postural control after acute lateral ankle sprain. J Athl Train. 2001;35:363-368.
119. Hertel J, Denegar CR, Buckley WE, Sharkey NA, Stokes WL. Effect of rearfoot orthotics on postural sway after lateral ankle sprain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82:1000-1003.
120. Cornwall MW, Murrell PM. Postural sway following inversion sprain of the ankle. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1991;81:243-247.
121. Golomer E, Dupui P, Bessou P. Spectral frequency analysis of dynamic balance in healthy and injured athletes. Arch Int Physiol Biomech Biophys. 1994;102:225-229.
122. Goldie PA, Evans OM, Bach TM. Postural control following inversion injuries of the ankle. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75:969-975.
123. Guskiewicz KM, Perrin DH. Effect of orthotics on postural sway following inversion ankle sprain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1996;23:326-331.
124. Leanderson J, Eriksson E, Nilsson C. Proprioception in classical ballet dancers: a prospective study of the influence of an ankle sprain on proprioception in the ankle joint. Am J Sports Med. 1996;24:370-374.
125. Mattacola CG, Lloyd JW. Effects of a 6-week strength and proprioception training program on measures of dynamic balance: a single-case design. J Athl Train. 1997;32:127-135.
126. Holme E, Magnusson SP, Becher K, Bieler T, Aagaard P, Kjaer M. The effect of supervised rehabilitation on strength, postural sway, position sense and re-injury risk after acute ankle ligament sprain. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1999;9:104-109.
127. Tropp H, Odenrick P. Postural control in single-limb stance. J Orthop Res. 1988;6:833-839.
128. Gauffin H, Tropp H, Odenrick P. Effect of ankle disk training on postural control in patients with functional instability of the ankle joint. Int J Sports Med. 1988;9:141-144.
129. Forkin DM, Koczur C, Battle R, Newton RA. Evaluation of kinesthetic deficits indicative of balance control in gymnasts with unilateral chronic ankle sprains. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1996;23:245-250.
130. Perrin PP, Bene MC, Perrin CA, Durupt D. Ankle trauma significantly impairs postural control - a study in basketball players and controls. Int J Sports Med. 1997;18:387-392.
131. Rozzi SL, Lephart SM, Sterner R, Kuligowski L. Balance training for persons with functionally unstable ankles. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1999;29:478-486.
132. Lentell GL, Katzmann LL, Walters MR. The relationship between muscle function and ankle instability. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1990;11:605-611.
133. Isakov E, Mizrahi J. Is balance impaired by recurrent sprained ankle? Br J Sports Med. 1997;31:65-67.
134. Bernier JN, Perrin DH, Rijke A. Effect of unilateral functional instability of the ankle on postural sway and inversion and eversion strength. J Athl Train. 1997;32:226-232.
135. Tropp H, Eckstrand J, Gillquist J. Factors affecting stabiliometry recordings of single limb stance. Am J Sports Med. 1984;12:185-188.
136. Rose A, Lee RJ, Williams RM, Thomson LC, Forsyth A. Functional instability in non-contact ankle ligament injuries. Br J Sports Med. 2000;34:352-358.
137. Pintsaar A, Brynhildsen J, Tropp H. Postural corrections after standardized perturbations of single leg stance: effect of training and orthotic devices in patients with ankle instability. Br J Sports Med. 1996;30:151-155.
138. Leanderson J, Bergqvist M, Rolf C, Westblad P, Wigelius-Roovers S, Wredmark T. Early influence of an ankle sprain on objective measures of ankle joint function: a prospective randomised study of ankle brace treatment. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 1999;7:51-58.
139. Tropp H. Pronator weakness in functional instability of the ankle joint. Int J Sports Med. 1986;7:291-294.
140. Ryan L. Mechanical stability, muscle strength, and proprioception in the functionally unstable ankle. Aust J Physiother. 1994;40:41-47.
141. Bush KW. Predicting ankle sprain. J Manual Manip Ther. 1996;4:54-58.
142. Hartsell HD, Spaulding SJ. Eccentric/concentric ratios at selected velocities for the invertor and evertor muscles of the chronically unstable ankle. Br J Sports Med. 1999;33:255-258.
143. Kaminski TW, Perrin DH, Gansneder BM. Eversion strength analysis of uninjured and functionally unstable ankles. J Athl Train. 1999;34:239-245.
144. Olmsted LC, Carcia CR, Hertel J, Shultz SJ. Efficacy of the Star Excursion Balance Tests in detecting reach deficits in subjects with chronic ankle instability. J Athl Train. 2002;37:501-506.
145. Verhagen EA, van Mechelen W, de Vente W. The effect of preventive measures on the incidence of ankle sprains. Clin J Sport Med. 2000;10:291-296.
146. Wester JU, Jespersen SM, Nielsen KD, Neumann L. Wobble board training after partial sprains of the lateral ligament of the ankle: a prospective randomized study. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1996;23:332-336.
147. Surve I, Schwellnus MP, Noakes T, Lombard C. A fivefold reduction in the incidence of recurrent ankle sprains in soccer players using the Sport-Stirrup orthosis. Am J Sports Med. 1994;22:601-606.
148. Sharpe SR, Knapik J, Jones B. Ankle braces effectively reduce recurrence of ankle sprains in female soccer players. J Athl Train. 1997;32:21-24.